Database - teaching tips

It may sound appealing that you can become an expert in something with 10,000 hours of practice, but this varies greatly by domain and by person. In the 1970s, researchers William Chase and Herbert Simon discovered that experts have about 100,000 patterns within their domain in their heads, which would take about 10 years to develop. This research was subsequently picked up by psychologist K. Anders Ericsson, who conducted research on excelling in something. According to his research, individual differences in performance can be explained by differences in practice. Subsequently, author Malcolm Gladwell embraced both studies in his book Outliers (2008). He saw some merit in the theory that training is the foundation of genius. He also figured that you have about 4 hours a day on average to practice something like a musical instrument. 10 years x 4 hours a day of practice is roughly ‘10,000 hours of practice to become an expert’. Since then, this has become a widely used rule of thumb. However, this rule of thumb is incorrect. Ericsson writes that Gladwell did not properly understand his original research. The research does not mean that they were simply engaged in repeating a practice for 10,000 hours (‘mediocrity culture’), but were deliberately working to reach a higher level. Often this was even more than 10,000 hours: a top-level violinist often reaches 15,000+ hours. The word 'deliberate' is very important here: a very experienced doctor who has been performing a certain surgery for years will not necessarily be better at it than a medical student who has just graduated. Moreover: people who do not continue to engage in something deliberately can sometimes even become relatively worse at it, as shown by Ericsson's research. It is also important to note that Ericsson strongly believes in nurture (competencies are learned), while other studies also indicate that nature (competencies are innate) can indeed play a determining role. Both the number of hours practiced and the overall malleability of human expertise are thus a myth. Of course, you can certainly get better at something by (deliberately) practicing.

De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. & Hulshof, C. (2019). Juffen zijn toffer dan meesters. Nog meer mythes over leren en onderwijs . Amsterdam, Nederland: Lannoo Campus | Anderz.

Activating relevant prior knowledge strengthens the storage of new information if that new information aligns with the information already present. Prior knowledge is information that is already stored in the student's long-term memory. That knowledge resides in networks of brain cells, also known as 'schemas'. The information then, as it were, hangs better on the coat rack, the schema where the information is stored. Activating prior knowledge can, however, also hinder the storage of new information when students have misconceptions. Therefore, it is important to activate and check the prior knowledge of students to ensure it is correct, so that misconceptions can be addressed. The challenge is that students often already understand 40-50% of the new material due to their prior knowledge, but different students possess different parts of that knowledge. If the prior knowledge within a group varies greatly, it is important to differentiate. The more accurate and extensive the prior knowledge is, the better new information can be added to it. Furthermore, it is important to activate only relevant prior knowledge. For example, if you show a video, try to ensure that the attention is directed towards the points you want the students to learn.

Activating prior knowledge

Shing, Y. L., & Brod, G. (2016). Effects of Prior Knowledge on Memory: Implications for Education. Mind, Brain, and Education, 10(3), 153–161.

Nuthall, G. (2007). The Hidden Lives of Learners. Wellington: NZCER Press.

Marzano, R.J. (2004). Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement. Research on What Works in Schools. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Actively retrieving information from your long-term memory, so that you can do it more easily next time and thus forget less quickly. By actively retrieving information from your long-term memory, you strengthen the connections between the neurons in your brain, making it easier to retrieve information from your long-term memory (see forgetting curve). Ways to do this include: • Answering practice questions (test questions, quiz questions). • Writing down from memory what you know about something after you have read or heard about it. It is important that there is some time between practice sessions. It is especially effective if you have partially forgotten the information and need to actively engage your long-term memory to retrieve it. Otherwise, it becomes automatic and therefore not educational. By repeating the retrieval of information, spreading it over increasing amounts of time (see spaced practice), and alternating topics and types of practice questions (see interleaved practice), the material will stick better.

Retrieval practice

Carpenter, S. K., Pashler, H., Wixted, J. T., & Vul, E. (2008). The effects of tests on learning and forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 36(2), 438-448.

Roediger, H. L., Putnam, A. L., & Smith, M. A. (2011). Ten benefits of testing and their applications to educational practice. In J. Mestre & B. Ross (Eds.), Psychology of learning and motivation: Cognition in education, (pp. 1-36). Oxford: Elsevier.

Agarwal, P. K., Karpicke, J. D., Kang, S. H., Roediger III, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (2008). Examining the testing effect with open‐and closed‐book tests. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22, 861-876.

Butler, A. C. (2010). Repeated testing produces superior transfer of learning relative to repeated studying. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 36(5), 1118.

Sleep is important for learning and performance. Help students by pointing this out to them. Getting enough sleep is essential for storing information and improving performance. Researchers suspect that the positive influence of sleep occurs in two ways. On one hand, new information you have acquired during the day is reactivated during sleep. It's as if you think about it one more time. This likely ensures that the memory trace of the new information is more strongly stored in long-term memory. This idea is also known as the trace reactivation hypothesis. Research shows that you can remember information better after a night's sleep than when you stay awake (see figure (Walker, 2006)). On the other hand, sleep is necessary to prepare your brain to perform well. During the day, new connections are made in your brain as you gain experiences, increasing the number of memory traces in your brain. During sleep, connections that are unimportant are likely weakened or removed. This frees up space for new experiences and knowledge. This is also known as the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis. The importance of sleep should not be underestimated. Sleep deprivation has been linked to reduced attention and poorer academic performance, as well as mental and health issues such as obesity and depression. On average, we need eight hours of sleep per night - it is a myth that you only need, for example, 6 hours of sleep. That can be a habit, but more sleep will be noticeably positive. Explain to students the importance of sleep and how they can improve their sleep quality with the following tips: • Try to go to sleep and wake up at the same times • Drink as little coffee, energy drinks, and other caffeine-containing beverages as possible • Do not use the snooze function: snoozing wakes you up repeatedly from your sleep. As a result, you do not wake up rested and are less productive for the rest of the day. • Do not watch movies that trigger adrenaline before going to sleep • Keep your phone far away from your bed • If you worry before sleeping, write down your thoughts and deal with them the next day

Arora, T., Broglia, E., Thomas, G. N., & Taheri, S. (2014). Associations between specific technologies and adolescent sleep quantity, sleep quality, and parasomnias. Sleep medicine, 15(2), 240-247.

Astill, R. G., Van der Heijden, K. B., Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Van Someren, E. J. (2012). Sleep, cognition, and behavioral problems in school-age children: A century of research meta-analyzed. Psychological bulletin, 138(6), 1109.

Backhaus, J., Hoeckesfeld, R., Born, J., Hohagen, F., & Junghanns, K. (2008). Immediate as well as delayed post learning sleep but not wakefulness enhances declarative memory consolidation in children. Neurobiology of learning and memory, 89(1), 76-80.

Dewald, J. F., Meijer, A. M., Oort, F. J., Kerkhof, G. A., & Bögels, S. M. (2010). The influence of sleep quality, sleep duration and sleepiness on school performance in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Sleep medicine reviews, 14(3), 179-189.

Matricciani, L., Bin, Y. S., Lallukka, T., Kronholm, E., Dumuid, D., Paquet, C., & Olds, T. (2017). Past, present, and future: trends in sleep duration and implications for public health. Sleep health, 3(5), 317-323.

Regularly ask students questions about the material and encourage them to quiz themselves. Asking practice questions is likely effective for two reasons. First, students have to make an effort to recall the correct answer. This means they are actively engaged in retrieving information, which ensures it is stored more strongly in long-term memory. As a result, students forget the material less quickly (see forgetting curve). This is also known as the testing effect or retrieval practice (see image). Additionally, practice questions provide students with insight into what is expected of them on a test and what knowledge they still lack. This helps them better understand what and how they need to learn next. It is important to provide students with the correct answers. Incorrect answers can actually be harmful to learning because students may continue to believe their answers are correct. Try to start each lesson with a few questions or statements about the material from the previous lesson(s). Or give the students flashcards so they can test their knowledge in groups during the lesson. Also, encourage the students to test their knowledge at home. They can test their knowledge, for example, by making flashcards at home and working with them. Additionally, you can help them by providing a practice test that they can complete at home. By asking different types of practice questions, spaced over increasing intervals, the information sticks even better in memory (see spaced practice and interleaved practice). Therefore, occasionally ask practice questions that refer back to lessons from some time ago.

Voorkennis activeren,

Agarwal, P. K., Karpicke, J. D., Kang, S. H., Roediger III, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (2008). Examining the testing effect with open‐and closed‐book tests. Applied Cognitive Psychology: The Official Journal of the Society for Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 22(7), 861-876.

Carpenter, S. K., Pashler, H., Wixted, J. T., & Vul, E. (2008). The effects of tests on learning and forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 36(2), 438-448.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

Roediger, H. L., Putnam, A. L., & Smith, M. A. (2011). Ten benefits of testing and their applications to educational practice. In J. Mestre & B. Ross (Eds.), Psychology of learning and motivation: Cognition in education, (pp. 1-36). Oxford: Elsevier.

A learning pyramid to indicate how we best remember things. Both the content and figures are fabricated and do not resemble the original research. In 1946, Edgar Dale wrote a book about media in education, which was revised in 1954 and 1969. In this book, he proposed the cone of experience, summarizing different types of indirect learning and ordering them from concrete to abstract. At the bottom are firsthand experiences and at the top, for example, texts that are composed of symbols. Dale emphasized that the cone is a visual metaphor for learning experiences, in which various types of audiovisual material are arranged in order of increasing abstraction. This is based on one's own direct experiences. He warned against seeing the cone as a rigid classification. Over the years, this cone has evolved into the now well-known 'learning pyramid' (e.g., by David Sousa, 2005), which features didactic labels and figures or percentages that were never on the original cone. The pyramid is derived from the cone but is completely fabricated. Additionally, this is also not correct in terms of content: for example, there is no evidence that we remember something we hear worse than something we see, as this depends on various factors. We also believe something faster if there is an image with it (truthiness). In this case, this ironically also applies to the pyramid itself. That alone says nothing about the learning yield.

De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. & Hulshof, C. (2019). Juffen zijn toffer dan meesters. Nog meer mythes over leren en onderwijs. Amsterdam, Nederland: Lannoo Campus | Anderz.

The (unnecessary) use of mobile phones leads to poorer learning performance. So be critical of this. Notifications distract your attention, and you need that attention to learn. Smartphones invite multitasking, which our brain cannot handle. Finally, many apps are developed to work with targeted immediate rewards, making you more likely to become addicted. Because learning often does not have such an immediate reward, it becomes increasingly difficult to put the phone down. This also applies to the temptation of the phone in class. No matter how interesting or strong your teaching method is, it probably won't win against a mobile phone. Additionally, research shows that students get distracted when their smartphone is merely nearby, even if it is out of sight (see image). So most likely, besides actually using your smartphone, just having it nearby is also detrimental. Your thoughts then still shift to your phone, causing your attention to drift away from the study material. We have three cognitive, decision-making brain systems: the archiving brain, the reflective brain, and the reflex brain. The difference between these last two brains is particularly important. The reflective brain is responsible for logical, analytical, synthetic, and creative thinking, for solving problems, thinking ahead, reflecting on the past, and deep thinking. It is slow and constantly requires attention and concentration. The reflex brain, on the other hand, is a kind of 'flashlight' brain that bases its conclusions solely on the here and now. Those who are always online train their reflex brain and neglect their reflective brain: our reflective brain cannot multitask. By being constantly online, our cognitive performance simply declines. No matter how interesting or strong your content or didactics are, it cannot compete with a mobile phone. A smartphone ban can help with this: especially beginning or 'weaker' students benefit from it. For 'stronger' or expert students, it has little effect. Research shows that all learning performances increase as the phone is placed further away. It is especially important to have clear behavioral rules. For example, you can condition students to set their smartphones to airplane mode at certain times. So when they enter the classroom, the smartphone must be on airplane mode. This works especially well when all teachers follow the same policy. Try to explain to students that the smartphone is a useful tool, but that many apps are deliberately designed to demand your attention. There are also apps that help you maintain your concentration. Explain the consequences of multitasking: more stress and students ultimately take longer to complete their tasks. Make students aware that the distraction of the smartphone is almost always present, even if it is in their bag. Of course, a mobile phone can also be useful for participating in a digital quiz or listening to music for concentration. Good agreements can help students use the phone effectively, but this is not equally easy for all students. So be critical of it, especially with beginning students.

Beland, L. P., & Murphy, R. (2016). Ill communication: technology, distraction & student performance. Labour Economics, 41, 61-76.

Chen, Q., & Yan, Z. (2016). Does multitasking with mobile phones affect learning? A review. Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 34-42.

Felisoni, D. D., & Godoi, A. S. (2018). Cell phone usage and academic performance: An experiment. Computers & Education, 117,175-187.

Thornton, B., Faires, A., Robbins, M., & Rollins, E. (2014). The mere presence of a cell phone may be distracting. Social Psychology.

Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2, 140-154

A model to categorize levels of knowledge, which can be used, for example, for developing a curriculum or creating a test. One of the most commonly used ways to categorize different levels of knowledge is based on Bloom's Taxonomy. Benjamin Bloom was the chairman of a committee that conducted research on 'learning' within the cognitive domain between 1949 and 1953. The committee thereby arrived at six different components as a general model for the objectives of the learning process (revised in 2000 by Anderson and others), which is often incorrectly represented. In the original research, Bloom spoke of ‘(…)with the understanding that knowledge was the necessary precondition for putting these skills and abilities into practice’. Knowledge (remembering) is therefore necessary to come to the other ways of elaboration. From a concept with different components, it suddenly became a hierarchy (taxonomy), with a split into 'higher order' and 'lower order' concepts that were never mentioned in Bloom's research. The ideas of Bloom's team disappeared and were replaced by six concepts in a pyramid shape. Later this was revised (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, pp. 4–5). There were some things incorrect about it: 1. The pyramid shape does not appear in the research surrounding the original or revised version of the taxonomy. 2. In the revised version, knowledge has become a separate dimension, with different types of knowledge (factual, conceptual, etc.). 3. In the revised pyramid, nouns have been replaced by verbs. 4. The taxonomy was never intended as a sequence. There is no research that shows you must be able to ‘analyze’ before you can ‘create’. As De Bruyckere also describes: ‘Applying procedural knowledge, also known as skills, can, for example, mean that you can create a painting. However, this does not necessarily mean that you understand the concept behind a painting you create.’ (De Bruyckere, 2019)

De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. & Hulshof, C. (2019). Juffen zijn toffer dan meesters. Nog meer mythes over leren en onderwijs. Amsterdam, Nederland: Lannoo Campus | Anderz.

There is no evidence that boys and girls have different brains and are therefore good at different things. Girls perform better in school than boys, but that is not due to a difference in brain development. Although boys have, on average, larger brains than girls, this has nothing to do with intelligence. When it comes to the brain, boys and girls should be equally capable of becoming good at exactly the same things. The difference in performance, for example, that boys are better at math and girls are better at language, therefore seems to be mainly due to a difference in training, concentration, and especially self-confidence. For instance, boys have a preference for building and constructing from an early age. They also have more experience in exploring their environment from a young age. Such activities require good spatial thinking and reasoning, as well as the ability to assess spatial relationships. Since boys have more experience in spatial reasoning, they are somewhat ahead of girls in developing skills known to be important for learning in the areas of arithmetic, mathematics, and technology.

Van Tetering, M., Van der Donk, M., De Groot, R. H. M., & Jolles, J. (2019). Sex differences in the performance of 7–12 year olds on a mental rotation task and the relation with arithmetic performance. Frontier in Psychology, 10(January), 1-11. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00107

A theory that centers on the idea that people learn a lot from each other through various techniques. It is a collection of effective methods to transfer knowledge. The Cognitive Apprenticeship Theory (CAT) is a knowledge theory that stems from social constructivism. The theory consists of six cognitive, well-researched, strongly interconnected, effective methods to transfer knowledge: • Modelling: Demonstrating things step by step and explaining the pros and cons. • Coaching: Observing and giving feedback. • Scaffolding: Aligning with the students' level and challenging them just above that level, gradually reducing support step by step. This is also known as the zone of proximal development. • Articulation: Allowing students to express their knowledge, reasoning, or problem-solving process. • Reflection: Encouraging students to reflect on their own actions (articulation) by comparing them to those of teachers, peers, etc. • Exploration: Giving students the space to discover things and set goals, while gradually reducing support through scaffolding.

Self-regulated learning

Ann E. Austin (2009) Cognitive apprenticeship theory and its implications for doctoral education: a case example from a doctoral program in higher and adult education, International Journal for Academic Development, 14:3, 173-183, DOI: 10.1080/13601440903106494

Erin E. Peters-Burton, Sydney A. Merz, Erin M. Ramirez & Maryam Saroughi (2015) The Effect of Cognitive Apprenticeship-Based Professional Development on Teacher Self-Efficacy of Science Teaching, Motivation, Knowledge Calibration, and Perceptions of Inquiry-Based Teaching, Journal of Science Teacher Education, 26:6, 525-548, DOI: 10.1007/s10972-015-9436-1

To understand learning material, you can use cognitive learning strategies. This is a collection of effective ways of learning. A learning strategy consists of a combination of different techniques and cognitive skills with which a certain learning goal can be achieved. It is used for the independent study of study material. If a strategy is specifically aimed at achieving a particular learning goal, it is a learning strategy (Moniek Boekaerts & Simons, 1995). There are eight different cognitive learning strategies: • Analyzing: Thoroughly step-by-step focusing on specific details and factual information in the study material. • Structuring: Integrating information into an organized whole. This can be done, for example, through overviews, schemas, or summaries. • Selecting: Separating main and secondary matters and choosing which information to focus on the most. • Repeating: Repeating parts of the study material multiple times. • Relating: Making connections between the different parts of the study material. • Concretizing: Translating the study material into more concrete examples such as personal experiences and daily events. • Critical processing: Drawing one's own conclusions or checking if conclusions are correct based on facts and arguments. • Practicing application: Thinking of possible applications for the study material. In what situations does it occur? When? What is it related to?

Boekaerts, M. Simons, P. R. J. (1995). Leren en instructie psychologie van de student en het leerproces. Nijmegen, Nederland: Koninklijke van Gorkum B.V.

Your short-term memory (working memory) can only handle a limited amount of information. When the memory is full, it essentially blocks. The core of the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) is based on various assumptions about how the brain works. A distinction is made between working memory (short-term memory) and long-term memory. Simply put: only a small amount of information fits in the working memory. When the memory is full, it essentially blocks. It takes time to transfer the information to long-term memory, and only then does space become available in the short-term memory. The extent to which information is burdensome depends on various factors, such as its complexity (superficial vs. deep thinking processes) and how much prior knowledge you have of it. In long-term memory, schemas are created in which new information is applied, which you can refer to when relevant information comes up. That explains, for example, why as an expert in a subject, you can learn new things much faster than when you are a beginner. Below are seven ways to consider cognitive load: • Work with worked examples: By showing worked examples, you place less strain on working memory because the solution procedure only needs to be followed and understood, not discovered. This is called the worked example effect. • Connect to prior knowledge: By connecting to existing prior knowledge, more mental space is left to process and store new information. This is called the element interactivity effect. • Fade out support: For beginners, more extensive instruction is effective, but as students become more skilled, this can become obstructive. Distinguish between beginners and experts. This is called the expertise reversal effect. • Be cautious with unnecessary information: Extra information can be interesting, but it can also heavily burden the working memory. Avoid this by mentioning it, for example, after the instructional part. This is called the redundancy effect. • Combine information: Combine information where possible, for example by showing an example and the steps involved at the same time. This way, the brain does not have to switch continuously. This is called the split-attention effect. • Provide information both audibly and visually: Because the information enters the brain in two ways (dual coding), it is easier to understand and remember. This is called the modality effect. • Encourage visualization: By visualizing information, it is better stored in the brain. In this way, it can be better remembered and recalled. This is called the imagination effect.

Giving instruction

Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive load theory. In J. P. Mestre & B. H. Ross (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Vol. 55. The psychology of learning and motivation: Cognition in education (p. 37–76). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8

Ayres P; Juan C. C-A; Wong M; Marcus N; Paas F, 2019, 'Factors That Impact on The Effectiveness of Instructional Animations.', in Tindall-Ford S; Agostinho S; Sweller J (ed.), Advances in Cognitive Load Theory Rethinking Teaching, Routledge, London, https://www.routledge.com/Advances-in-Cognitive-Load-Theory-Rethinking-Teaching-1st-Edition/Tindall-Ford-Agostinho-Sweller/p/book/9780367246907

Castro-Alonso J-C; Ayres P; Sweller J, 2019, 'Instructional visualizations, cognitive load theory, and visuospatial processing', in Visuospatial Processing for Education in Health and Natural Sciences, Springer, pp. 111 - 143, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_5

By moving, your brain becomes more active, which helps you process and store information better. Movement is most likely beneficial for the learning process. The majority of studies show that students perform better on cognitive tasks after physical exercise. Physical exercise increases blood flow and oxygen supply to the brain and changes neurotransmitters (substances that facilitate the exchange of signals in the brain). These two changes ensure the preservation of nerve cells and better communication between brain regions. Additionally, movement during tasks helps students maintain their attention better (see image). Apart from the effects of movement on learning performance, movement has also proven positive effects on various other aspects, such as health and self-confidence. The positive effects on learning performance are strongest after about 20 minutes of moderate exercise. Stronger effects are found in students who are already fit compared to students who are not fit. This is likely due to fatigue in students who are not fit. So, for example, start the lesson by asking true/false questions where children have to sit and stand, give a lesson outside, or integrate a lesson with physical education.

Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30(4), 331-351.

Chang, Y. K., Labban, J. D., Gapin, J. I., & Etnier, J. L. (2012). The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis. Brain research, 1453, 87-101. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.02.068

Fenesi, B., Lucibello, K., Kim, J. A., & Heisz, J. J. (2018). Sweat So You Don’t Forget: Exercise Breaks During a University Lecture Increase On-Task Attention and Learning. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 7(2), 261–269.doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.01.012

Hillman, C.H., Pontifex, M.B., Raine, L.B., Castelli, D.M., Hall, E.E., Kramer, A.F. (2009). The effect of acute treadmill walking on cognitive control and academic achievement in preadolescent children. Neuroscience. 159(3):1044-54. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.01.057

Lambourne, K., & Tomporowski, P. (2010). The effect of exercise-induced arousal on cognitive task performance: a meta-regression analysis. Brain research, 1341, 12-24.

When information enters our brain both verbally and visually, it is better stored in memory. It is therefore wise to supplement your explanations or texts in the lesson with visual material. This dual processing can help you enhance the learning effect of your lessons. The Dual Coding theory (dual-coding theory) states that the combination of words and images appeals to two different processing mechanisms in working memory. When people see an image of a dog while being told about it, they process both the image and the word. By applying this theory, you increase the chances that students will later be able to retrieve the learned information from their long-term memory, because they associate the information with both the text and the image. When employing dual coding, it is important to consider the following considerations: • Decorative images can distract from the text and explanation. The greater cognitive load results in poorer storage of the information. The negative effect is, however, minimal, and research often does not take into account what the increase in load does to students' motivation. • Add images especially if they clarify more than just the text. Think of images that clarify the context or help interpret texts. • Signal markers (such as arrows) and integrating the text into the image help to increase the coherence between text and image.

Active learning, giving instruction

Paivio, A. (2006). Dual Coding Theory and Education. Te downloaden via de website van ­CiteSeerX.

Schnotz, W., Fries, S., & Horz, H. (2009). Motivational aspects of cognitive load theory. In M. Wosnitza, S. A. Karabenick, A. Efklides, & P. Nenniger (Eds.), Contemporary motivation research: From global to local perspectives (p. 69–96). Boston, MA: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers.

Guo, D., Zhang, S., Wright, K. L., & McTigue, E. M. (2020). Do You Get the Picture? A Meta-­Analysis of the Effect of Graphics on Reading Comprehension. AERA Open, 6(1), 1–20.

Richter, J., Scheiter, K., & Eitel, A. (2016). Signaling text-picture relations in multimedia learning: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 17, 19–36.

Civaschi, M., & Milesi, G. (2013). Film in Five Seconds. London: Quercus Publishing.

The better a student knows what is expected in the lesson, for an assignment, or on a test, the better they can assess their own knowledge and skills. They can also better determine what is (still) needed to achieve the goals and complete the assignment with a passing grade (Carless & Boud, 2018; Sadler, 1989; Tai et al., 2018).  Also, to effectively provide feedback to peers, it is essential that students know the criteria a product must meet. Therefore, it is important to clarify the expectations you have as a teacher for your students in advance: what are the learning goals or learning outcomes that are central to this module, subject, or activity? And what are the success criteria to achieve these? This may sound obvious, but it certainly is not. According to Gulikers and Baartman (2017), many studies show that teachers often do too little to make the goals and success criteria explicit and clear for their students. Simply naming the goals or telling students: “formulate your own learning goals” or “there are examples and a rubric in the online environment” does not work.  The teacher must consciously and systematically approach this by making it explicit and clear; students need to be taught and guided in mastering and/or formulating their own learning goals. A prerequisite for clarifying expectations with students is that clear, goal-oriented learning goals and success criteria are formulated in advance. Formulating learning goals is an art in itself. It is then important that these goals and criteria are communicated to students at multiple times and in various ways. Ideally, students are actively involved in the construction of goals and criteria and in explicitly articulating them together.

Clarifying expectations, Giving feedback

Carless, D., & Boud, D. (2018). The development of student feedback literacy: enabling uptake of feedback. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43(8), 1315-1325.

Gullikers, J., & Baartman, L. (2017). Doelgericht professionaliseren: formatieve toetspraktijken met effect! Wat DOET de docent in de klas? Wageningen: WU.

Hawe, E. M., & Dixon, H. R. (2014). Building students’ evaluative and productive expertise in the writing classroom. Assessing Writing, 19, 66-79.

Sadler, D. R. (2010). Beyond Feedback: Developing Student Capability in Complex Appraisal. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(5), 535-550.

Tai, J., Ajjawi, R., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Panadero, E. (2018). Developing Evaluative Judgement: Enabling Students to Make Decisions about the Quality of Work. Higher Education 76(3), 467–481.

Connect where possible to the interests of the students, making it more meaningful. This leads to better processing and retention. Show that a task is useful by placing it in an authentic context. You can do this, for example, by linking it to the everyday living environment of the students and making it clear to them when they will apply this task. By making this connection, abstract concepts become more concrete (see learning strategy concrete examples) and students see the usefulness of it more clearly. When students see the usefulness, they process the information more deeply, which leads to better storage in long-term memory (see image, Craik & Lockhart, 1972). This is also referred to as authentic or meaningful learning. Additionally, aligning with the students' world increases intrinsic motivation. Students become genuinely interested in the subject and will therefore spend more time on it. This means that students subsequently understand the subject better, which is beneficial for their final performance.

Kirschner, P. A., Claessens, L. & Raaijmakers, S. (2018). Op de schouders van reuzen: Inspirerende inzichten uit de cognitieve psychologie voor leerkrachten. Meppel: Ten Brink Uitgevers.

Valerio, K. M. (2012). Intrinsic motivation in the classroom. Journal of Student Engagement, 2(1), 30-35.

Weinstein, Y., Sumeracki, M., & Caviglioli, O. (2018). Undertanding how we learn: a visual guide. New York, Verenigde Staten: Routledge.

Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal behavior, 11, 671-684.

Many students often engage in 'cramming': learning a lot in a short period of time. This knowledge sticks in the short term, but not in the long term. The last evening before a test, doing some 'cramming' is a common learning strategy among students. This way of learning ensures that superficial knowledge sticks briefly. This is effective for small tests in the short term, but it bypasses deep knowledge and is largely forgotten after a few days. We can only handle a limited amount of information and start forgetting it immediately. Distributed learning in short blocks is therefore much more effective. This is evident from theories such as the Cognitive Load Theory and the Forgetting Curve. It is important to know that students often feel that rereading or cramming is effective (see Illusion of Fluency), while in reality, it may not be. It is therefore advisable to give students insight into these theories and help them with distributed learning. Additionally, it is important to realize that, on average, due to brain development, only 10% to 15% of students plan ahead. So help them with planning, as students often cannot do this yet.

Weinstein, Y., Sumeracki, M., & Caviglioli, O. (2018). Undertanding how we learn: a visual guide. New York, Verenigde Staten: Routledge

There is no evidence for the fact that the left brain hemisphere is analytical and the right brain hemisphere is creative. The myth originates from the 1800s. Doctors discovered that if one hemisphere of the brain was injured, certain functions disappeared. We now know through scans that brain hemispheres 'control' each other. But why is the left side rational and the right side creative? In the 20th century, various books were published containing hypotheses about how the brain works. Since brain research revealed that people often use their left hemisphere for language, for example – but even then, the other hemisphere is still needed. Further research by Nielsen (2013) and others shows that there are indeed certain areas in the brain that are stronger in specific tasks, but you certainly cannot speak of 'left and right areas'. For that, the connections in the brain are simply too intricately wired. Recently, more extensive research has been conducted, showing that both hemispheres of the brain are needed for creativity (Sign, H., & O’Boyle, M. W. 2004). To think creatively, a good connection between both hemispheres is necessary, but there is no reason to refer to forms of thinking that emphasize the left or right hemisphere.

De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. & Hulshof, C. (2019). Juffen zijn toffer dan meesters. Nog meer mythes over leren en onderwijs. Amsterdam, Nederland: Lannoo Campus | Anderz.

Beginners think differently from experts. It is therefore important to differentiate in this. Students often have to solve 'problems' (calculations, language errors, major issues, etc.). Research has shown that 'experts' in a field (stronger, advanced students) have different prior knowledge than beginners. They are both quantitatively stronger (they know more) and qualitatively stronger (the knowledge is organized differently). This way, they build rich knowledge schemas about problems from different types of contexts and possible solutions. Beginners also possess schemas, but they are less extensive and profound, and therefore less effective. The use of these thinking schemas can sometimes even backfire because beginners look at the superficial characteristics of a problem. Beginners are not just small experts who simply need to know more. It has been shown that what is useful and effective for weaker students works counterproductively for advanced students, and vice versa. This is known in the literature as the expertise reversal effect. Students therefore need an approach where the new knowledge connects to their prior knowledge (see scaffolding). It is therefore important to differentiate at an early stage, for example when reading an assignment, because experts may approach it differently than a beginner. For example, modelling is very useful as it can also give you as a teacher more insight into where students stand and where they might go wrong. It is also important to take this into account during direct instruction. The instruction and guidance that are essential for weaker students can actually hinder advanced students.

Learning, differentiation

Kirschner, P. A., Claessens, L. & Raaijmakers, S. (2018). Op de schouders van reuzen: Inspirerende inzichten uit de cognitieve psychologie voor leerkrachten. Meppel: Ten Brink Uitgevers.

Digital natives is a myth in itself: there is no evidence that this generation needs different education or work forms than previous generations. Since around 2000, publications about the net generation, the “homo zappiens” and the digital native have been appearing more frequently. Young people would naturally and skillfully handle new technology, while older people, as digital immigrants – those who were not raised with the internet but have become accustomed to it – at best try to learn to cope with the internet and technology. Since around 2006, this view has been increasingly scrutinized. The German professor Rolf Schulmeister warns, based on an analysis, against placing young people within a 'net generation' and drawing far-reaching consequences for education from that perspective (Schulmeister, 2008). According to Schulmeister, it is much better to start from a differentiated group, which is approached in a differentiated manner within education. He has analyzed a large number of studies on media use and concludes that media use does not justify the term 'net generation.' Research from the University of Melbourne also provides no support for the distinction between 'digital natives - digital immigrants' (Kennedy, 2008). Differences in technology use are explained by factors such as gender or socioeconomic status, according to the researchers. Students and teachers differ greatly in terms of experience with technology and their preferences for using technology in higher education.

https://wij-leren.nl/mythe-leerstijlen-digital-native-neurowetenschap.php

De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. & Hulshof, C. (2016). Jongens zijn slimmer dan meisjes: 35 mythes over leren en onderwijs. Amsterdam, Nederland: Lannoo Campus | Anderz.

Reading a text once is useful, the second time it just seems that way. Students often use rereading as a learning strategy. Most research shows that rereading helps with recalling a text, but that rereading only slightly helps in improving learning performance. How significant the benefit of rereading is depends on the time between two readings and how long after reading the test moment is (see figure 1, Rawson, 2012). Despite the small but positive effect of rereading on memory, it probably does not help students to understand the text better. Rereading gives students the false impression that they understand the material because they recognize the text. This leads to them no longer engaging in deep processing of the material: the students do not learn much more from it. For this reason, it is better to encourage students to actively retrieve information from their memory (see retrieval practice). Give a lesson where you explain to the students why it is better to actively engage with the learning material instead of rereading it. Give students advice on different active learning strategies. For example, students can actively engage at home by using flashcards, creating a concept map, or making practice questions. Try to actively engage with the material during the lesson. Start the lesson, for example, with a few questions about last week's material or create a small quiz about the past lessons.

Adesope, O. O., Trevisan, D. A., & Sundararajan, N. (2017). Rethinking the use of tests: A meta-analysis of practice testing. Review of Educational Research, 87(3), 659-701.

Callender, A. A., & McDaniel, M. A. (2009). The limited benefits of rereading educational texts. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(1), 30-41

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

Rawson, K. A. (2012). Why do rereading lag effects depend on test delay?. Journal of Memory and Language, 66(4), 870-884.

Highlighting text is often not an effective way to learn. Highlighting the material is a commonly used learning method that can be useful, but often this method is used ineffectively. Highlighting forces students to distinguish between main and secondary points. This way, they are actively engaged with the material, which allows them to process it more deeply and thus retain it better. Additionally, highlighted sections of text stand out more than non-highlighted sections. And the fact that they stand out more makes these sections better remembered. The problem, however, is that students often do not know how to effectively highlight a text. For instance, students often highlight too much text, causing the highlighted text to no longer stand out among the surrounding text. Additionally, students spend less time thinking about which information is important: the result is that they process the text less effectively. Finally, highlighting can cause students to focus too much on isolated facts, making it harder to understand the connections between them. The best approach is to teach students to use highlighters primarily to indicate structure and connections within the text. Help them, for example, with recognizing main and secondary points, or with making connections between different parts of the text. Colors can help to indicate the main and secondary points: students can also give the same color to text parts that are related. Additionally, have them think critically about what they need to highlight. Teach them to read through the entire text once (before they start highlighting) so they better understand which text is important.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

Kostons, A. S. Donker & M.-C. Opdenakker. (2014). Zelfgestuurd leren in de onderwijspraktijk. Een kennisbasis voor effectieve strategie-instructie. GION onderwijs/onderzoek, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.

Miyatsu, T., Nguyen, K., & McDaniel, M. A. (2018). Five popular study strategies: their pitfalls and optimal implementations. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(3), 390-407.

Yue, C. L., Storm, B. C., Kornell, N., & Bjork, E. L. (2015). Highlighting and its relation to distributed study and students’ metacognitive beliefs. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 69-78.

People with less knowledge and skills often have more self-confidence. When looking at self-confidence, it is often higher in beginners than in those who are more competent. This stems from the fact that beginners have less knowledge and skills and lack the metacognitive ability to realize that their choices and conclusions are sometimes wrong. The reverse is also true: people who are extremely competent often doubt themselves more because they know how complex or vast something is. Have you ever been surprised as a teacher by students who would give themselves an extremely high grade? Or that student who is very good at something but downplays it enormously? Students who start something very motivated and then completely lose the motivation to continue because 'it will never work out'? These are all examples that can be traced back to the Dunning-Kruger effect. The effect implies that what you need to know and be able to do to perform a task well is exactly what is needed to assess whether you have done the task well.

Self-regulated learning

Kruger J, Dunning D. Unskilled and unaware of it: how difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1999;44:247–296, PMID 10626367.

Dunning, D. Chapter five — the Dunning–Kruger effect: on being ignorant of one’s own ignorance. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 2011; 44:247–296.

Nuhfer E, Cogan C, …, Wirth K. Random number simulations reveal how random noise affects the measurements and graphical portrayals of self-assessed competency. Numeracy 2016; 9:1.

Motta M, Callaghan T, Sylvester S. Knowing less but presuming more: Dunning-Kruger effects and the endorsement of anti-vaccine policy attitudes. Social Science & Medicine 2018;211:247–281, PMID 29966822.

By reading aloud, students retain information better. When you read a text aloud, the information is stored differently and more strongly in your memory than when you read the text silently. The idea is that words read aloud gain both a motor (producing the word) and a perceptual (hearing the word) characteristic. As a result, words read aloud will be distinguished in your memory from words read silently. These distinctive memory traces are better remembered than silently read word traces (see graph, MacLeod, 2010). This is also known as the production effect. So, have students read aloud more often in class, for example by creating reading groups. Additionally, explain to them the benefits of reading aloud and try to encourage them to do this at home.

Fawcett, J. M., Quinlan, C. K., & Taylor, T. L. (2012). Interplay of the production and picture superiority effects: A signal detection analysis. Memory, 20(7), 655-666. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2012.693510

Forrin, N. D., & MacLeod, C. M. (2018). This time it’s personal: the memory benefit of hearing oneself. Memory, 26(4), 574-579. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2017.1383434

MacLeod, C. M. (2010). When learning met memory. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 64(4), 227. doi: 10.1037/a0021699

Ozubko, J. D., & MacLeod, C. M. (2010). The production effect in memory: Evidence that distinctiveness underlies the benefit. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36(6), 1543.

Modelling (demonstrating) is an effective way to teach students by showing and imitating.  Modelling involves demonstrating and explaining an activity (such as learning strategies). This way of learning is particularly effective for children, teenagers, and young adolescents because mirror neurons are extra sensitive to new information during brain development (Pol, 2011). To appeal to these mirror neurons, you can act as a role model as a teacher: demonstrate things out loud and provide insight into the pros and cons of certain choices (Schuit, de Vrieze, & Sleegers, 2011).  This way, the neurons become active. This means that by demonstrating something, the student can form a conceptual model through observation. This approach is motivating and strengthens students' confidence in a teacher (Zimmerman, 2000).

Giving instruction

Peeters, W. (2020, 7 januari). De Cognitive apprenticeship theory: hoe een gezel leert van zijn meester. Geraadpleegd van: https://www.vernieuwenderwijs.nl/de-cognitive-apprenticeship-theory-hoe-een-gezel-leert-van-zijn-meester/

Pol, R. v. (2011). Wat je over pubergedrag moet weten. Geraadpleegd op 10 januari 2016 van dokterdokter: http://www.dokterdokter.nl/gezondleven/puber/wat-je-over-pubergedrag-moetweten/

Sleegers, P. J. C., Schuit, H., & de Vrieze, I. (2011). studenten motiveren: een onderzoek naar de rol van leraren. Heerlen: Ruud de Moor Centrum – Open Universiteit.

Zimmerman, B.J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: a social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P.R. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Regulation, pp. 13-39. San Diego, CA: Academic Press

Providing support just above the student's level. Then the support is gradually reduced, so they learn to do it independently.   Scaffolding is the adaptation of teaching to the individual level of the student. It is also known as the zone of proximal development. What you can do independently is the actual development. What you need help with is the proximal development. The area in between is the zone of proximal development: activities that you cannot yet do independently, but can do with social support during their execution.  By addressing students in this area, you activate the brain and thereby promote active learning. The support can, for example, be provided by guiding the level of direct instruction, the complexity of an activity, or the requirements set for an assignment. Students thus enter a state of flow. By gradually reducing the support ('fading'), students learn to do it independently.

Deep learning

Beed, P., Hawkins, M., & Roller, C. (1991). Moving learners towards independence: the power of scaffolded instruction. The Reading Teacher, 44(9), 648–655.

The learning environment affects learning. It is therefore important that it is pleasant for students. The physical environment in which teaching and/or learning takes place likely affects the mood of students and thus their motivation and concentration. For an optimal learning environment, a few things can be considered. First of all, it is important that fresh air enters the classrooms. This ensures sufficient oxygen for the brain, allowing students to concentrate better. Additionally, it is good to pay attention to the temperature of the learning environment. Students are less able to learn in a too warm room. Thirdly, it is good to keep the room as tidy as possible. This ensures the least distraction and gives students peace. Fourthly, it is important that the room is well-lit since light has an effect on our feelings and sleep rhythm. Natural light is the best to prevent feelings of fatigue. Finally, it depends on the student whether the learning place can be combined with music. Especially music with lyrics should be avoided, as processing spoken text interferes with reading written text. It is important that students listen to recognizable music. When students need to be creative, it can also be beneficial to have some background noise. Try to consider as many factors as possible. For example, keep the door and windows open between lessons for fresh air and try to keep the classroom as organized as possible. Additionally, make students aware of the importance of these factors. This way, students become aware of the conditions in which they learn best.

Choi, H.-H., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2014). Effects of the Physical Environment on Cognitive Load and Learning: Towards a New Model of Cognitive Load. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), 225–244. doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9262-6

Higgins, S., Hall, E., Wall, K., Woolner, P., & McCaughey, C. (2005). The impact of school environments: A literature review. London: Design Council.

Klatte, M., Bergström, K., & Lachmann, T. (2013). Does noise affect learning? A short review on noise effects on cognitive performance in children. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 578.

Tanner, C. K. (2008). Explaining relationships among student outcomes and the school’s physical environment. Journal of advanced academics, 19(3), 444-471

Vohs, K. D., Redden, J. P., & Rahinel, R. (2013). Physical order produces healthy choices, generosity, and conventionality, whereas disorder produces creativity. Psychological Science, 24(9), 1860-1867.

Ensure a quiet study space where students are not distracted by irrelevant information.  Students are distracted by what is on the classroom walls. In classrooms with many posters and decorations, students exhibit distracted behavior more often than students in classrooms with fewer visual aids and decorations. Age makes no difference in this regard; both in higher and lower grades, the visual environment predicts students' task-oriented behavior. The more there is to see, the more difficulty students have in keeping their attention on the lesson. And the more they are distracted, the lower their test scores. If there is a lot to see in the classroom, it continues to draw students' attention, even if they spend more and longer periods in the same room. Students do not get used to the visual environment in the classroom over time and remain distracted. New educational tools and memory aids that replace already learned information mean potential new sources of distraction. Spelling rules or other educational tools and memory aids on the wall can have a positive effect. The condition is that the visual support aligns with the instruction given by the teacher. And there must be attention to it during the lesson. Students surrounded by posters with relevant information – spelling rules during spelling lessons – achieve higher test results than students who also see posters with other information, and than students in classrooms where no posters are hung. Higher results are only achieved if the teacher specifically pays attention to the posters during the lesson.

https://www.kennisrotonde.nl/vraag-en-antwoord/visuele-educatieve-hulpmiddelen-in-de-klas-effect-leerprestaties

Learning is an active process. When students actively engage with the material, the information sticks better than when they process the material passively. In active processing, students think hard about the material or apply what they learn. In passive processing, students think relatively little about the material. The difference between active and passive processing lies in the extent to which students are prompted to think; the main indicator that learning is taking place. Active and passive lie on a continuum. A student can actively engage with a summary by thinking hard about how to concisely summarize the text in their own words. Or rather passively, by thinking little and writing a lot. The setup of your education can also be more active or passive. From a meta-analysis, an analysis of multiple studies, it was found that when teachers integrated active processing into their module, 33% more students completed the course compared to when teachers primarily explained the material and students listened. Students not only perform better with activating teaching methods, but they also appreciate these methods more and find them stimulating. So let students actively engage with the learning material. This increases their involvement and the learning outcomes of your lessons.

Actief learning

Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(23), 8410–8415.

Chiu, P. H. P., & Cheng, S. H. (2017). Effects of active learning classrooms on student learning: A two-year empirical investigation on student perceptions and academic performance. Higher Education Research & Development, 36(2), 269–279.

Wiliam, D., & Leahy, S. (2018). Formatieve assessment: integreren in de praktijk. Den Haag: Bazalt.

Executive functions are a number of neurological processes in the brain that work together in leading and coordinating our efforts to achieve a goal. They have a significant impact on learning. In the literature, the term 'executive functions' is understood as follows: “The term executive functions is a catch-all term for the mental processes that play a supervisory role in thinking and behavior. They encompass a number of functions with a neurological basis, which work together in leading and coordinating our efforts to achieve a goal” (Cooper-Khan & Foster, 2014, p. 23). In other words, it is the ability to plan, devise a strategy, respond effectively to changes, etc. Executive functions regulate, for example, starting a task and maintaining attention. It can be compared to the tasks of an entrepreneur of a large company. In the literature, a distinction is made between the following executive functions (Dawson & Guare, 2009): • Response inhibition: The ability to think before you act. • Working memory: The skill to hold information in memory while performing complex tasks. • Emotion regulation: The ability to regulate emotions to complete tasks or control behavior. • Flexibility: The skill to adapt to changing circumstances. • Sustained attention: The skill to maintain attention to a situation or task. • Task initiation: The ability to begin a task on time and in an efficient manner. • Planning/prioritization: The skill to distinguish between main and secondary issues in planning. • Organization: The ability to stay informed about information or necessary materials and maintain an overview. • Time management: The skill to estimate how best to allocate your time to meet a deadline, for example. • Goal-directed behavior: The ability to formulate a goal and achieve it despite conflicting interests. • Metacognition: The ability to self-monitor and self-evaluate. Executive functions vary from person to person. Many students who 'exceed themselves' in education have relatively strong executive functions. Various meta-analyses show that working on individual executive functions has little demonstrable positive impact on learning outcomes. Working on individual executive functions does not visibly translate to related skills such as academic and social skills. However, it does have an effect to work on multiple executive functions simultaneously: “So maybe you can’t train ‘executive functions’, but you can train an executive function” (Kassai, et al. 2019).

Grip on learning, ownership

Kassai, R., Futo, J., Demetrovics, Z., & Takacs, Z. K. (2019). A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence on the near- and far-transfer effects among children’s executive function skills. Psychological Bulletin, 145(2), 165–188. doi:10.1037/bul0000180

The idea that people can have two types of mindsets: a fixed mindset and a growth mindset. American psychologist Carol Dweck has conducted research on the motivations and performances of students. She concluded that there are two types of mindsets: the fixed mindset and the growth mindset. Students with a fixed mindset saw ability as something that must manifest immediately and thus cannot be developed. They gave up if they couldn't do something right away. Students with a growth mindset believed that ability could grow through hard work and practice. They persevered at all times, even when it became difficult or when they encountered problems. Nowadays, researchers question the reliability of Dweck's original studies. Later studies show different results. They showed, among other things, that a growth-oriented mindset does not lead to better learning (Sisk et al, 2018). Moreover, Dweck's research is based on a method of self-reporting by students. The fact that students think differently about competence and intelligence is true, but the influence of those mindsets on academic performance has never been strongly demonstrated. Especially interventions in the area of mindset appear to be not (or hardly) effective.

Self-regulated learning, giving feedback

Kirschner, P. A., Claessens, L., & Raaijmakers, S. (2018). Op de schouders van reuzen: Inspirerende inzichten uit de cognitieve psychologie voor leerkrachten. Meppel: Ten Brink Uitgevers.

By ensuring that learning activities meet certain conditions, students enter a flow (state of mind). They can then learn optimally. According to Csikszentmihalyi (the creator of the theory), the determining factors are “challenge level” and “skill level” for performing a task motivatedly: someone is happiest when their skills are engaged at a high level during the execution of a task or activity (see image). The feeling of flow can be characterized by the following eight features: 1. Extreme concentration and goal orientation. 2. A clear goal emerges. 3. Loss of self-consciousness where one fully focuses on the activity and forgets oneself. 4. The activity is rewarding. For example, it is very enjoyable. 5. A clear sense of control over the situation and/or activity. 6. A sense of a manageable challenge (not too difficult, but also not too easy activities). 7. Providing immediate feedback so that success and failure are visible and one can learn from it immediately. 8. Loss of time awareness, making time fly by. To achieve these characteristics during learning, one can, for example, take into account basic needs such as the zone of proximal development and cognitive load.

Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Oxford library of psychology. Oxford handbook of positive psychology (p. 195–206). Oxford University Press.

Your working memory quickly forgets new information. By repeating it, you forget it less quickly. The German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (January 24, 1850 – February 26, 1909) conducted much research on memory during his career. This resulted in 1885, among other things, in the publication of Über das Gedächtnis (loosely translated: On Memory), which he described as a piece about 'the process of learning and forgetting'. Ebbinghaus concluded from his research that people could initially remember newly learned things well, but that over time you forget things. Ebbinghaus also discovered something else important: the speed at which you forget new information. His research showed that you forget the most in the first 20 minutes and that you generally forget a lot in the first 60 minutes. After about one day, the amount you forget levels off, and after about a week, you will hardly forget anything more: an exponential decline. These data resulted in the Forgetting Curve (red line). The speed at which you forget things depends on various factors, such as how complicated something is, how tired you are when you learn it, and how important it is to you. You also forget less important things faster. It can also make a difference whether something is presented as text, visually, or in both ways (see dual coding). What also emerges from Ebbinghaus's research is that you remember information better with repetition: an exponential growth (green line). This emphasizes the importance of spaced learning (see spaced learning). By learning something new and regularly repeating it, you remember it much better than learning everything at once. You should gradually increase the time between learning sessions.

Retrieval practice

Carpenter, S. K., Pashler, H., Wixted, J. T., & Vul, E. (2008). The effects of tests on learning and forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 36(2), 438-448.

Roediger, H. L., Putnam, A. L., & Smith, M. A. (2011). Ten benefits of testing and their applications to educational practice. In J. Mestre & B. Ross (Eds.), Psychology of learning and motivation: Cognition in education, (pp. 1-36). Oxford: Elsevier.

Agarwal, P. K., Karpicke, J. D., Kang, S. H., Roediger III, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (2008). Examining the testing effect with open‐and closed‐book tests. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22, 861-876.

Butler, A. C. (2010). Repeated testing produces superior transfer of learning relative to repeated studying. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 36(5), 1118.

Direct instruction is a form of teacher-led instruction, focused on conveying information and developing skills. Direct Instruction is a method of teaching where the teacher first explains and demonstrates something (see models), after which the students are given the opportunity to practice further with the teacher and with each other. The traditional direct instruction model consists of the following steps:   1. daily review  2. presentation  3. (re)practice of the learned material  4. independent application of the learned material  5. periodic review  6. feedback (during each lesson phase)   Some important characteristics of DI are:   • Develop basic knowledge and skills in a powerful way.  • Adapt to the individual pace of the student. • Set clear goals. • A clear structure of the learning material.  • Provide immediate feedback.  • Work with worked-out examples.   Research shows that direct instruction especially helps beginning students to understand things (and can actually hinder experts). It is therefore important to align well with the knowledge or skills of the students.  This can be done, for example, by providing shortened instruction, basic instruction, and extended instruction (see figure: direct instruction model by Timmermans). See the image for 17 tips on direct instruction.

Learning, differentiation

Engelmann, S. & Carnine, D. (1991). Theory of instruction: Principles and applications. Eugene, OR: ADI Press.

Engelmann, S. (2007). Teaching Needy Kids in Our Backwards System. Eugene, OR: NIFDI Press.

Fielding, G.D., Kameenui, E., & Gersten, R. (1983). A comparison of an inquiry and a direct instruction approach to teaching legal concepts and applications to secondary school students. The Journal of Educational Research, 76(5), 287–293. doi:10.1080/00220671.1983.10885468

Hänze, M., & Berger, R. (2007). Cooperative learning, motivational effects, and student characteristics: An experimental study comparing cooperative learning and direct instruction in 12th grade physics classes. Learning and Instruction, 17(1), 29–41. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.11.004

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of 800+ meta-analyses on achievement. New York: Routledge

Your expectations as teachers about your students can influence the learning performance of those students, both positively and negatively.  In studies where teachers were made aware of the influence of their own expectations or where they had to explicitly express high expectations, this resulted in better learning performance of students. It is therefore advisable to express realistic and clear expectations to your students. The finding that your expectations as a teacher about your students can influence the learning performance of those students is known as the Pygmalion effect, the teacher expectancy effect, or the Rosenthal effect. This effect is explained by the fact that your attitudes and expectations influence your behavior, and that behavior is then interpreted by students. Students may feel stupid, for example, if you start sighing out loud after explaining something a second time, perhaps unintentionally. Unwanted expectations from teachers are usually based on stereotypical characteristics of the group to which students (seem to) belong, due to their ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic status (SES). For example, it appears that teachers often view the future of students with a low SES more pessimistically than that of students with a high SES. The danger of (too) low expectations is that teachers (unconsciously) invest less energy in these students or express expectations that undermine the students' self-esteem.

Provide instruction, clarify expectations

Rubie-Davies, C., Hattie, J., & Hamilton, R. (2006). Expecting the best for students: Teacher expectations and academic outcomes. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(3), 429-444.

Timmermans, A. C., Kuyper, H., & Van der Werf, G. (2015). Accurate, inaccurate, or biased teacher expectations: Do Dutch teachers differ in their expectations at the end of primary education? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(4), 459–478.

De Boer, H., Timmermans, A. C., & Van der Werf, M. P. (2018). The effects of teacher expectation interventions on teachers’ expectations and student achievement: narrative review and meta-analysis. Educational Research and Evaluation, 24(3–5), 180–200.

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Teacher expectations for the disadvantaged. Scientific American, 218(4), 19–23.

Auwarter, A. E., & Aruguete, M. S. (2008). Effects of student gender and socioeconomic status on teacher perceptions. The Journal of Educational Research, 101(4), 242–246.

By eating a varied and healthy diet and drinking enough, you can concentrate better and your memory likely works better. Our drinking and eating habits influence how well our brains function. It is difficult to say exactly what the precise relationship is between our eating and drinking habits and our learning performance. This is probably because healthy eating and drinking, compared to activities like actively retrieving information, only make a small contribution to your cognitive functioning. Research has shown a number of things: To begin with, drinking water is associated with cognitive functions, concentration, alertness, and memory, although the effects are generally small. The main point here is to stay adequately hydrated. A lack of water will cause you to become sluggish, which will impair your cognitive functions, concentration, alertness, and memory. Additionally, a lack of water likely also causes mood changes such as anxiety and fatigue. Furthermore, eating less/losing weight makes you tired and reduces your concentration. Your brain consumes twenty percent of your energy intake. In general, foods that are healthy for your body are also healthy for your brain. Thus, it is good to ensure you get enough vitamins, minerals, and proteins. Intake of these nutrients especially helps in the creation of new brain cells and in good communication between brain cells. Specifically, vitamin B is believed to have a beneficial effect on communication between brain cells, and a deficiency in vitamin B12 is associated with forgetfulness. Additionally, there is relatively strong evidence that omega-3 fatty acids have a positive effect on cognitive functioning and concentration. These fatty acids are thought to play an important role in the growth of brain cells and also stimulate communication between brain cells. A deficiency in this is associated with reduced concentration, forgetfulness, but also with depression. A simple piece of advice is that students should eat a varied and healthy diet and drink enough water. students may often forget to drink water at school. Try to encourage this by allowing water bottles in the classroom. Additionally, advise students to eat a varied and healthy diet. In general, eating fruits, vegetables, fibers, nuts, and fish is considered healthy and beneficial for your mental functioning. As a teacher, you might also consider incorporating a vegetable and/or fruit break into the lesson. Additionally, inform students that caffeine in coffee and energy drinks provides a short boost, but can lead to a significant dip afterward. It can also often cause you to sleep less well, while sufficient sleep is so important. In short: healthy and varied eating does seem to have an effect on students' performance.

Benton, D. (2011). Dehydration influences mood and cognition: a plausible hypothesis?. Nutrients, 3(5), 555-573

Edmonds, C. J., Crombie, R., Ballieux, H., Gardner, M. R., & Dawkins, L. (2013). Water consumption, not expectancies about water consumption, affects cognitive performance in adults. Appetite, 60, 148-153.

Fadda, R., Rapinett, G., Grathwohl, D., Parisi, M., Fanari, R., Calò, C. M., & Schmitt, J. (2012). Effects of drinking supplementary water at school on cognitive performance in children. Appetite, 59(3), 730-737.

Gómez-Pinilla, F. (2008). Brain foods: the effects of nutrients on brain function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(7), 568.

Psaltopoulou, T., Sergentanis, T. N., Panagiotakos, D. B., Sergentanis, I. N., Kosti, R., & Scarmeas, N. (2013). Mediterranean diet, stroke, cognitive impairment, and depression: a meta‐analysis. Annals of neurology, 74(4), 580-591.

Memory aids help you remember information better. Memory aids work because you link new information to information from long-term memory. There are many different types of memory aids, including: method of loci, peg system, keyword method, letter strategies, mnemonics such as 't kofschip and TV-TAS, or remembering a word through a physical sensation like feeling cold when thinking of the word cold. Two types of memory aids that proved to work well in research are: 1. Method of loci (‘the memory palace’): the idea that you imagine a route or room that you know very well. Then you link the information you need to remember to certain places or objects you encounter along the way. The Method of Loci is particularly effective for learning facts and words (see image (Dresler, et al., 2017)). 2. Keyword method: with this method, you create a mental image of a word or a related word. This is effective because visualizing something helps with remembering it. When words are difficult to visualize, such as religion, it can help to think of something that is easy to visualize and has an association with the word to be learned, such as church in this case. This method is especially useful when you need to learn words from another language. Memory aids are particularly useful for learning facts and words. It is often useful if students come up with the mnemonics themselves because they remember them better. Sometimes using well-known mnemonics is easier because they are often obvious. So, familiarize students with the above or other mnemonics. The method of Loci can also be performed in the classroom. For example, have students first memorize a list of words within five minutes. Then explain the method to them and have them memorize a similar list of words again. This way, students can experience that the method works.

Retrieval practice

Amiryousefi, M., & Ketabi, S. (2011). Mnemonic instruction: A way to boost vocabulary learning and recall. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(1), 178.

Campos, A., Amor, A., & González, M. A. (2004). The importance of the keyword-generation method in keyword mnemonics. Experimental Psychology, 51(2), 125-131.

Dresler, M., Shirer, W. R., Konrad, B. N., Müller, N. C. J., Wagner, I. C., Fernández, G., Greicius, M. D. (2017). Mnemonic Training Reshapes Brain Networks to Support Superior Memory. Neuron, 93(5), 1227–1235.e6. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.02.003

Legge, E. L., Madan, C. R., Ng, E. T., & Caplan, J. B. (2012). Building a memory palace in minutes: Equivalent memory performance using virtual versus conventional environments with the Method of Loci. Acta psychologica, 141(3), 380-390.

McCabe, J. A. (2015). Location, location, location! Demonstrating the mnemonic benefit of the method of loci. Teaching of Psychology, 42(2), 169-173.

Planning is something you need to learn, and sticking to a plan as well. Help students with long-term planning by conducting interim checks. Students are bombarded with various tasks during their studies from many different information sources, such as emails, schedules, and lessons. Additionally, the student period is the time when most young people have to find a balance for the first time between their study tasks, part-time jobs, social life, hobbies, sports, and vitality. That's a lot of balls to keep in the air. It is therefore not surprising that one in three students has difficulty with time management and planning. This partly explains the increase in stress at many educational institutions. More than half of the students experience stress symptoms. Students still need plenty of support in the planning process, especially with tasks assigned to them by others. Your memory can only handle a limited amount of information at a time: if you try to learn more than that, things will also be forgotten. You remember information much better when you learn in short bursts and then review it later. Additionally, students can learn more effectively through planning by working with goal setting. At a later time, they can test themselves to see if these goals have been achieved. Help students learn to plan by providing structure. To help students with their planning, you can break the assignment into parts and set short-term deadlines and/or create feedback moments. In this way, you teach students to work on something step by step and on time. Also, explain to students how they can set priorities (Eisenhower Model): they should also take repetition into account. Also, tell students that their own planning is meant to provide an overview and that they can always adjust it if they find it is not working. Planning is a skill that requires practice. Additionally, creating a behavior plan can greatly help with planning. A behavior plan is intended to make homework and studying a habit. A behavior plan contains two different components: - A trigger: a signal that clearly indicates to you that you should start the desired behavior - The behavior itself: doing homework or studying in this case. A trigger can be a behavior (e.g., dinner), an environment (e.g., coming home from school), but also a day or time. The behavior should be described as specifically as possible, for example, doing math homework for 45 minutes on Monday and Thursday evenings. A behavior plan might sound like this: “On Monday and Thursday evenings, after dinner (6:30 PM), I will spend at least 45 minutes on my math homework”. You can divide the planning process into three different components: gathering, organizing, and planning. First of all, it is important that students collect and store their tasks in an 'external memory', such as a to-do list on paper or a digital medium. The working memory can only process approximately a maximum of seven tasks simultaneously. After the tasks have been collected, they need to be organized, prioritized, and sometimes divided. Which tasks belong together, which tasks need to be done first, and how can large tasks be divided into manageable subtasks that can be planned? Only when the first two steps have been completed can students create a logical time schedule and place their tasks and subtasks with deadlines in the agenda.

Self-regulated learning

Van Huisseling, A., Keiman, D., Van Liere, N., Mourisse, L., Ohlenforst, T., Pleijers, D., & ­Vennes, A. (2018). Welzijn onder studenten: Radboud Cares. Radboud University. Te down­loaden van de website scienceguide.nl via het artikel Nijmeegse studenten maken actieplan voor studentenwelzijn.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

Hartwig, M. K., & Dunlosky, J. (2012). Study strategies of college students: Are self-testing and scheduling related to achievement?. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19(1), 126-134.

Universiteit van Amsterdam & Hogeschool van Amsterdam. (2015). Stoplichten: Studenten­gezondheidstest UvA en HvA studenten. Te downloaden via de website van studentengezond heidstests.nl onder het kopje resultaten/onderzoekresultaten.

Sierhuis, D. (2019). Stressfactoren onder studenten. Amsterdam: ASVA.

Knowledge and skills are context-bound and therefore difficult to transfer to another context. Research shows that retrieving information from long-term memory is influenced by the context in which the student is situated. When learning, we create context-bound schemas of knowledge and skills in our long-term memory. These schemas are activated when we need to undertake something within that same context. Context includes all characteristics of an explanation, test, or item. If the circumstances change, the knowledge and skills remain (partially) behind: they are therefore harder to retrieve in a different context. This means that a student can solve a particular formula well in Mathematics but struggles with the same formula in Physics. The more complex something is, the harder the transfer. Students need support in transferring that knowledge and skills. This can be done, for example, by making the similarities between different subjects and skills clear to them by making the information rich in context. It can also be done by deliberately practicing applying knowledge and skills. This way, students break free from the context of the learned material. For example, let the students think about in which situations the knowledge/skill might be useful.

Retrieval practice

Smith, S. M., Glenberg, A., & Bjork, R. A. (1978). Environmental context and human memory. In Memory & Cognition, 6(4), 342-35. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03197465

Christodoulou, D. (2017). Making Good Progress? Oxford: OUP

To help students use instructional videos effectively, there are a few things to keep in mind. The nuance lies in how you create and use these videos. When creating, it is important to pay attention to the following points: 1. Keep it calm Do not use unnecessary words, images, and sounds. It can be nice to show a video at the start of a lesson, but when it comes to learning, extra stimuli cause higher cognitive load. 2. Combine word and image Use images to support words and vice versa. Words and images are processed separately by the working memory. Preferably use simple images and icons and display them side by side to reduce cognitive load. 3. Teacher on screen? Can be, but not necessarily. Students generally do not learn better if there is a person on screen. Sometimes this is the case, but only if the person is familiar to them. When creating a video, focus primarily on the content. 4. Keep it spontaneous Preparation is good, but do not write out the text verbatim: students generally learn better if the text is delivered as a conversation rather than in a strict, read-aloud format. So, mainly use the keywords in the presentation as a guideline. 5. Use keywords The working memory can only process one stream of verbal information at a time. If you read aloud the text that you present on a slide, the brain has to choose, and the unconscious choice might be to follow neither. So, it's better not to read text aloud. It is advisable to show a maximum of seven keywords per slide. 6. Keep it short You can fast-forward a video, and that's what students often do with videos longer than 6 minutes. So, try to keep videos short and concise. A guideline is a maximum of 10 minutes, but preferably 3-6 minutes. Do you have presentations from a lecture? Then, for example, cut these into several short videos. 7. Ensure active viewing Learning is an active process. Therefore, teach students to watch actively. For example, you can pause the video every two minutes and then have students summarize it from memory, for instance using the Cornell method. Additionally, make the video more interactive by asking questions about the video beforehand or afterward. You can also add questions directly to the video, allowing students to pause and answer them on their own. In conclusion It is important to actively integrate the use of videos into your lessons. You can do this by building on those videos in your lessons. One way to do this is to address the answers to quiz questions that students give in response to the videos they have watched during your lessons. For example, address common mistakes. Finally, do not cater too much to students who have not watched the instructional videos. If only those who have watched the videos engage in fun, activating activities, other students will quickly learn to watch them.

Active processing, giving instruction

Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge University Press.

Horvath, J. C. (2019). Stop talking, start influencing: 12 insights from brain science to make your message stick. Chatswood, NSW: Exisle Publishing.

Ilioudi, C., Giannakos, M. N., & Chorianopoulos, K. (2013). Investigating Differences among the Commonly Used Video Lecture Styles. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Analytics on Video-based Learning. WAVe ’13.

People tend to value things they have (partially) created or made themselves more than things made or designed by others. This effect is named after the furniture store IKEA, where purchased products often need to be assembled by the buyer. The IKEA effect has been known for a while, but in 2011 it was also officially proven through scientific research by researchers from the universities of Harvard, Yale, and Duke. The researchers demonstrated through various experiments that people value a product more if they have to (partially) perform labor to bring the product into existence. This phenomenon also occurs when the result is worse than if a professional had done it.

Norton, Michael I., Daniel Mochon, and Dan Ariely. The IKEA Effect: When Labor Leads to Love. Journal of Consumer Psychology 22"

no. 3 (July 2012): 453–460.",Sarstedt

M. Neubertand

D & Barth

K. The IKEA Effect. A Conceptual Replication. In *Journal of Marketing Behavior* (2016)

The more we learn something as easy, the more we think we are good at it. Often it is the opposite: real learning 'hurts'. In general, we know quite well what we do or do not know or can do. We use this knowledge to assess how useful it is to, for example, do certain sports exercises or read about something. It is a useful trait that makes us skilled in developing ourselves. However, sometimes we experience learning as easy, leading us to believe we understand or can remember something, while in reality, this is not the case. We unconsciously deceive ourselves: the fluency illusion. A well-known example of this is rereading text: because you recognize things when reading the text again, you feel like you are getting better at it. In reality, it is purely about recognition and contributes very little to remembering it. Rereading a text is one of the most chosen learning strategies by students, but it is therefore not very effective. Another example is the short-term repetition of facts (see cramming). By repeatedly stating facts, it seems to become easier and feels as if we have gotten better at it. In reality, this is not the case: the information is stored superficially and will relatively quickly disappear from memory.

Lang, J. (2016). Small Teaching: Everyday Lessons from the Science of Learning. New Jersey. Verenigde Staten: John Wiley & Sons Inc

Alternating topics or types of questions. By alternating during learning, you continuously engage your brain, thereby strengthening the connections between the neurons in your brain. This makes it easier to retrieve information from your long-term memory (see forgetting curve). If you keep making the same type of questions about something, you eventually work on autopilot and don't have to think anymore (and thus you don't learn). Ways to engage in interleaving include making random practice questions (test questions, quiz questions) from material covered in the past weeks (see retrieval practice). By repeating this, spaced over increasing amounts of time (see spaced practice), the information will stick better. However, it is first and foremost important that as a student you thoroughly understand the material you are going to learn. It is also important that the topics are related to each other. For example, it works well to mix exercises about the volumes of a cube, sphere, and cylinder, but not to mix different subjects. This way of learning will feel more difficult and therefore less enjoyable than simply studying the same thing for a longer period. However, this actually means that your brain has to work, and as a result, you learn more.

Retrieval practice

Rohrer, D. (2012). Interleaving helps students distinguish among similar concepts. Educational Psychology Review, 24, 355-367.

Are we getting dumber by using the internet? There is no clear evidence for that. Digital dementia… does it exist? Neurologists Susan Greenfield and Manfred Spitzer (2012) argue that it does. They claim that the internet will rewire our brains in a detrimental way. At first glance, this seems to be correct, because the increase in IQ test results appears to have slowed down in recent years, while more and more people are gaining access to the internet. The cause of this, however, is not straightforward. For example, school tests in the recent past have also been heavily focused on IQ tests, and there is research suggesting that people are simply guessing more on difficult questions. The original growth, which occurred around 2000, seems to have been artificially induced at that time. Is there even a correlation between internet access and IQ at all? We do use Google more and more often as an 'external memory' (Sparrow, B. 2011). Students remember information that cannot be found on the internet better and information that they can store less well. However, they do remember relatively well where that information can be found. From research, you can cautiously conclude that we remember more selectively (Pink, 2010). So, we remember more of what is necessary: why remember street names and places if we have Google Maps? You could therefore argue that we are becoming smarter in efficiently using our memory. There is no research that clearly shows that we are becoming 'dumber' due to the advent of the internet.

De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. & Hulshof, C. (2019). Juffen zijn toffer dan meesters. Nog meer mythes over leren en onderwijs. Amsterdam, Nederland: Lannoo Campus | Anderz.

The Cornell method is an effective way of taking notes, remembering, and learning. Research shows that the Cornell method encourages students to write notes in their own words. We have what is called a sensory memory, where sensory information only lingers briefly. When no attention is given to the information in this memory, it never reaches the long-term memory. It is therefore important to use a method in which you can quickly and organizedly take notes. The Cornell method leads to systematic notes that are organized and therefore easy to review. This results in better understanding and an effective way of storing information in memory. Read below to see how it works. Divide the page on which you are going to write (you remember better than typing) into 3 parts: a narrow vertical column on the left, a wide vertical column on the right, and a horizontal section at the bottom of the page (see image below): • In the right column, your detailed notes will be written. • In the left column, the most important keywords will be written. • In the section at the bottom, a summary of a few sentences will be written. Summarize the page in a few sentences. Take notes in the right column during the lesson. Use short sentences, keywords, bullet points, arrows to connect things, and make it visual by using pictures and icons. Keep it simple and immediately summarize what is being said. Use a new page for each new topic to keep it organized. Write keywords in the left column at the end of the lesson – or afterwards. Think of names, places, dates, key words, etc. You can also turn these into questions to study later. Then write a short summary at the bottom of the page: what would you tell someone to make this topic clear? Now you can place a sheet over the right section and quiz yourself: explain terms or concepts from the left column and then check with what is on the right to see if it matches. You can help students practice the Cornell method by giving them a partially completed example that they need to fill in further. students can then easily learn these notes by covering the right column and trying to recall what they know from the left column.

Actief learning

Peters, J. (2020, 7 januari). De Cornell methode om aantekeningen te maken. Geraadpleegd van: https://www.planning-en-agenda.nl/de-cornell-methode-om-aantekeningen-te-maken/

Akintunde, O. O. (2013). Effects of Cornell, verbatim and outline note-taking strategies on students’ retrieval of lecture information in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 4(25), 67-73.

Alzu’bi, M. A. (2019). The Influence of Suggested Cornell Note-taking Method on Improving Writing Composition Skills of Jordanian EFL Learners. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 10(4), 863-871.

Donohoo, J. (2010). Learning how to learn: Cornell notes as an example. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(3), 224-227.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K.A., Marsh, E.J., Nathan, M.J., Willingham D.T (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14, pp. 4– 58 https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266

Use pictures or icons in your lessons. Our brains often remember images better than words – especially in combination with each other: it then enters the (working) memory in two ways, making it processed more powerfully (see also dual coding). By also presenting learning material visually, you ensure that students often remember it much better. So, for example, add images or icons to a presentation or learning text. It is important that the image matches the content: otherwise, it only distracts (see cognitive load theory). Also teach students to use pictures and icons when learning, for example by adding them to a summary or schemas they create. It is even more powerful if students come up with these themselves, so they can give their own association to it. For a long time, it was thought that students learn effectively by, for example, seeing information visually or by feeling it. In other words: everyone has one particular learning style. However, there is no evidence for this. The problem with learning styles is, among other things, that there is a difference between how people like to learn and how people learn well. Additionally, there is extensive meta-research (Clark, 1982) that shows there is no – or even a negative – correlation between learning styles and learning outcomes (sugar is tasty, but not always good). There is also the danger of categorizing people into boxes, while most people do not fit into one box. There is no proven good test to measure this, and there are simply too many learning styles. Research by Coffield, Moseley, Hall, and Ecclestone has identified as many as 71 learning styles. There is hardly any scientific evidence that shows that adapting education to learning styles has an effect. It can even have a negative effect. Everyone learns differently, so don't categorize people into boxes. Although learning styles appear in many (older) books, in training sessions, and in education, it is a persistent myth that cannot be substantiated by research. It would actually be better to learn in a different way sometimes, to vary more and strengthen your weaker points.

De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. & Hulshof, C. (2016). Jongens zijn slimmer dan meisjes: 35 mythes over leren en onderwijs. Amsterdam, Nederland: Lannoo Campus | Anderz.

Weinstein, Y., Sumeracki, M., & Caviglioli, O. (2018). Undertanding how we learn: a visual guide. New York, Verenigde Staten: Routledge.

Let students actively explain the material to each other, then they are actively engaged with it.  A meta-analysis (an analysis of numerous studies) shows that explaining the material out loud is good for learning performance. Researchers suspect that this is because students are actively engaged in retrieving the knowledge from their memory. Moreover, by taking on the role of teacher, students are motivated. As a result, students engage more actively with the material, paying more attention to details and spending more time understanding the information. So, for example, plan an activity in the lesson where students have to explain the learned material to each other.

Learning together, differentiating

Bowman-Perrott, L., Davis, H., Vannest, K., Williams, L., Greenwood, C., & Parker, R. (2013). Academic benefits of peer tutoring: A meta-analytic review of single-case research. School psychology review, 42(1), 39.

Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. L. C. (1982). Educational outcomes of tutoring: A meta-analysis of findings. American educational research journal, 19(2), 237-248.

Galbraith, J., & Winterbottom, M. (2011). Peer‐tutoring: what’s in it for the tutor?. Educational Studies, 37(3), 321-332. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2010.506330

Koh, A. W. L., Lee, S. C., & Lim, S. W. H. (2018). The learning benefits of teaching: A retrieval practice hypothesis. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 32(3), 401-410. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3410

You can learn from mistakes; they are a feedback mechanism. The extent to which you learn depends on your own expectations. Brain cells communicate with each other via electrical signals. Brain researchers can measure these signals in the brain using EEG. EEG studies show that as soon as you make a mistake, a characteristic pattern of negatively charged electrical brain activity becomes visible on the EEG, which is strongest at the top of the head. Neuroscientists call this phenomenon 'error-related negativity' or ERN. When detecting an error, the cingulate cortex sends a warning signal to other parts of the brain via a bundle of nerve fibers known as the cingulum. This happens at an enormous speed (within 100 milliseconds) after an error has been made. However, it takes at least another 200 milliseconds before you yourself realize that you have made an error. A positively charged electrical brain activity then follows, making you aware of the error detected by the cingulate cortex. Scientists also refer to this signal as 'error positivity'. So, your brain knows before you do when you have made an error. The subsequent 'error positivity' often does not match your own hopes or expectations. This violation of your own expectations is called a 'prediction error' in science. This causes that intense feeling of disappointment when you have not performed as well as you had hoped. The stronger the violation of your own expectations, the stronger the activity measured in the brain by scientists. This releases neurotransmitters like dopamine, which motivate you to adjust your behavior in the future or use a different strategy. Precisely a big mistake or intense disappointment then provides the strongest learning signal in the brain. It is therefore important to see mistakes for what they really are; an ingenious and innate feedback mechanism necessary for your development.

Giving feedback, 

https://vernieuwenderwijs.nl/de-wijsneuzen-aflevering-22-fouten-maken/

Eckstein, Lydia E., Amelia B. Finaret, and Lisa B. Whitenack. 2023. “Teaching the Inevitable: Embracing a Pedagogy of Failure.” Teaching & Learning Inquiry 11. https://doi.org/10.20343/teachlearninqu.11.16

Henderson, Charles, and Kathleen A. Harper. 2009. “Quiz Corrections: Improving Learning by Encouraging Students to Reflect on Their Mistakes.” The Physics Teacher 47 (9): 581–86. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.3264589.

Dweck, Carol. 2014b. “Teachers’ Mindsets: ‘Every Student Has Something to Teach Me’ Feeling Overwhelmed? Where Did Your Natural Teaching Talent Go? Try Pairing a Growth Mindset with Reasonable Goals, Patience, And Reflection Instead. It’s Time to Get Gritty and Be a Better Teacher.” Educational Horizons 93 (2): 10–15. https://doi-org.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/10.1177/0013175X14561420.

To enable students to learn effectively, it is valuable to keep the cognitive load as low as possible. In other words, you mainly want to increase the relevant load and reduce the unnecessary load, while keeping the intrinsic load under control. A model that can support this is the Load Reduction Instruction (Martin, 2016; Martin & Evans, 2018). In this model, five factors are highlighted that can help reduce cognitive load: difficulty reduction, support and scaffolding, practice, feedback, and guided independence. Difficulty Reduction New information can be complex, especially if you have little prior knowledge about it. By making new information easier, you can link it to prior knowledge more quickly and organize and integrate it more easily into your long-term memory. You can reduce the difficulty, for example, by breaking down complex tasks into small steps, showing worked examples, or providing didactic tips. Support and Scaffolding When learning something new, it is beneficial for your cognitive load and thus valuable to receive sufficient support, such as instruction and examples. This support, also known as scaffolding, can be gradually reduced during the learning process, thereby increasing independence (read more about scaffolding here). You can do this, for example, by first showing an instruction with examples, then having groups work on it, and finally having them work on it independently. According to Martin (2016), all of this is separate from the discussion of whether you should start with instruction or with a question: this depends on the target group you are dealing with. Practice ‘Practice makes perfect’ is the saying. Information that enters our working memory must be well processed before it becomes knowledge. Hearing a story once does not mean it has been processed. Only through active processing and regular repetition are the connections between neurons strengthened and is the information converted into knowledge. If we want students to internalize new material, it is therefore important to provide sufficient opportunities to practice. You can do this, for example, by offering activating assignments and having them regularly repeat these actively. Feedback Feedback is one of the most important factors in a good learning process. Why does it specifically work for reducing cognitive load? Martin and Evans (2018) provide three reasons for this: feedback helps to apply good learning strategies, strengthens motivation, and ensures that you learn the right things and do not unnecessarily store incorrect information. Not all feedback is effective. Want to know what works? Then check out this poster with 10 tips for effective feedback, listen to this podcast about effective feedback, or this one about feedback to large groups. It is also valuable to delve into feedback literacy. You can read more about feedback here. Guided Independence If you want to learn new things, it is important that you can eventually manage them independently. This is not only to confirm that you master something independently, but also because 'experts' benefit from working more independently with the learning material; overly basic instruction causes unnecessary load (extraneous load) for them. That independence does require sufficient guidance. As Patrick Sins also writes (2023): you cannot learn self-regulated learning in a self-regulated way. Self-regulated learning is a cyclical process. Be careful not to offer too much autonomy too quickly, as this can cause choice stress and thus cognitive overload.

Giving instruction

Baddeley, A. and Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In Bower, G., editor, The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, pages 47–89. Academic Press

Horvath, J.C. (2019). Stop talking, start influencing: 12 insights from brain science to make your message stick. Chatswood, NSW : Exisle Publishing

Martin, A.J. (2016). Using Load Reduction Instruction (LRI) to boost motivation and engagement.

Martin, A.J., & Evans, P. (2018) The Load Reduction Instruction Scale. Sydney: School of Education, University of New South Wales.

Sweller, John (1988). Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning. Cognitive Science 12 (2):257-285.

In our long-term memory, information is stored indefinitely from the working memory. Learning is about retrieving and storing information in this memory. Our long-term memory stores information that we receive. This information is stored in so-called schemas where new schemas are created or existing schemas are expanded: this is what we call learning. These schemas (knowledge and skills) are context-dependent. The long-term memory consists of the non-declarative memory and the declarative memory. The non-declarative memory is used for automated knowledge and skills, such as tying your shoes, swimming, reading, and simple calculations. This memory also includes association: automatic ready knowledge, such as thinking of the word 'butter' when you hear the word 'bread'. This can also be learned through classical conditioning, as with Pavlov. The declarative memory is used for non-automated knowledge, such as having a substantive conversation or learning concepts. It consists of semantic memory (facts, meanings, and concepts) and episodic memory (reconstructing events based on time, place, and emotional context). These two systems work together: learned concepts are linked to the context (for example, the story or the physical space). These are like anchor points that make it easier to remember and recall knowledge, but can also make it harder if the context changes. Students often remember episodic details of a lesson (lesson flow), without precisely knowing what was discussed (concepts). By telling stories with interesting facts, you can utilize the connection between episodic and semantic memory: this makes storytelling a powerful way to learn. By breaking down complex information into small chunks, that knowledge can be automated (non-declarative). In this way, students can retrieve it more easily. Additionally, it is effective to have students apply knowledge (and not just reproduce it), so that it becomes less context-dependent. Information (schemas) in long-term memory is not stored like a file on a computer: memories continuously change and can thus also lead to false memories. This can be a problem in learning because memories (prior knowledge) are difficult to modify. Long-term memory supports working memory by allowing existing information to be linked to new information. In this way, you reduce cognitive load (see Cognitive Load Theory). By using learning strategies such as retrieval practice, spaced practice, and interleaved practice, you strengthen the schemas around the knowledge you are working on. This makes it increasingly easier to retrieve that information from long-term memory. This is called learning. It is also beneficial to partially forget information first, so that you train the brain to forget it less quickly the next time (better retention).

Activating prior knowledge, active repetition

Dideau, D. & Rose, N. (2019). Psychologie in de klas: Wat iedere leraar moet weten. Culemborg, Nederland: Phrones

Weinstein, Y., Sumeracki, M., & Caviglioli, O. (2018). Undertanding how we learn: A visual guide. New York, Verenigde Staten: Routledge.

Students who are curious are eager for information they do not yet possess. They are therefore also eager to learn: motivated to acquire the missing information.  Curiosity activates the reward system in the brain. Additionally, the information that people are curious about is better retained. It is therefore valuable to stimulate the curiosity of students. In theory, curiosity can be sparked in anyone and for any subject. It is not a personality trait. Curiosity is triggered when students realize there are 'gaps' in their knowledge. Curiosity can be enhanced when students find information important, relevant, or useful. For example, if a beginning law student knows some fundamental rights, thus possessing prior knowledge, it will be easier to make that student curious about the remaining fundamental rights than a social work student with a relatively vague understanding of fundamental rights. You can stimulate curiosity by showing students that they are missing relevant information. To make your students curious, you can also ask critical questions about their existing prior knowledge. For example, present common misconceptions about a topic. Finally, information that students do not expect can also increase curiosity, as they want to better understand where that unexpected outcome comes from.

Giving instruction

Gruber, M. J., Valji, A., & Ranganath, C. (2019). Curiosity and learning: A neuroscientific perspective. In K.A. Renninger & S.E. Hidi (Eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Motivation and Learning (pp. 397-417). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kang, M. J., Hsu, M., Krajbich, I. M., Loewenstein, G., McClure, S. M., Wang, J. T. Y., & Camerer, C. F. (2009). The wick in the candle of learning: Epistemic curiosity activates reward circuitry and enhances memory. Psychological Science, 20(8), 963–973.

Loewenstein, G. (1994). The psychology of curiosity: A review and reinterpretation. Psychological Bulletin, 116(1), 75–98.

Pluck, G., & Johnson, H. L. (2011). Stimulating curiosity to enhance learning. Education Science and Psychology, 2(19). Te downloaden via de website van White Rose Research Online.

Van der Vorst, R. (2007). Nieuwsgierigheid: Hoe wij elke dag worden verleid. Amsterdam: Nieuw Amsterdam.

You read digital text faster, but when you have to read a long text, you understand it better when you read it from paper. The question of whether you can read better from paper or better on your screen is similar to our piece about typing versus writing. Because here too, research does not show a clear convincing advantage for one method over the other. students often indicate a preference for a screen over a book, but digital reading does not always yield better results. To begin with, a recent meta-analysis (an analysis over a series of studies) found that the difference in text comprehension between reading digitally or from paper likely depends on the length of the text. For short texts, there is little difference between the two methods. But when it comes to longer texts, it turns out that it is easier to have a mental image of the text. You can clearly see where a piece of text begins and ends, and you often remember, for example, where in a text a certain piece of information was located. This information could help you process the text. An advantage of a digital text is that hypertext can be used: a word that contains a link to a website. This can help students better understand the text. Additionally, a digital text is read faster than a printed text. The danger with a laptop screen remains the digital distraction. Students switch activities every 3 to 10 minutes when working on a laptop. This distraction can cause them to process the text more superficially and therefore understand it less well. It turns out that when reading a text digitally, students remember details better, but they have a better overall understanding of the text when they read a printed text. So, it is not necessarily worse to read information from a screen. But even though students see themselves as experts when it comes to reading online texts, they sometimes do well to pick up their book. Teach students that when they need to understand a text well, they are better off printing it than reading it digitally.

Delgado, P., Vargas, C., Ackerman, R., & Salmerón, L. (2018). Don’t throw away your printed books: A meta-analysis on the effects of reading media on reading comprehension. Educational Research Review, 25, 23-38.

Kaufman, G., & Flanagan, M. (2016, May). High-low split: Divergent cognitive construal levels triggered by digital and non-digital platforms. In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 2773-2777). ACM.

Kong, Y., Seo, Y. S., & Zhai, L. (2018). Comparison of reading performance on screen and on paper: A meta-analysis. Computers & Education, 123, 138-149.

Mangen, A., Walgermo, B. R., & Brønnick, K. (2013). Reading linear texts on paper versus computer screen: Effects on reading comprehension. International journal of educational research, 58, 61-68.

Margolin, S. J., Driscoll, C., Toland, M. J., & Kegler, J. L. (2013). E‐readers, computer screens, or paper: Does reading comprehension change across media platforms?. Applied cognitive psychology, 27(4), 512-519.

Our memory is a reconstruction: memories change by recalling them or through influences such as dreams. For a long time, it was thought that our memory worked like a library: you retrieve a memory like a book and put it back in the same way. Our memory, however, is a reconstruction: it changes continuously. By recalling memories, they can change slightly, and dreams or certain events can also influence memories. Our memory is therefore not objective, and memories can also be incorrect. By recalling memories in the right way, you strengthen them correctly. It is therefore important to work with learning strategies such as Interleaving, Spaced practice, and Retrieval practice.

Activating prior knowledge

Dideau, D. & Rose, N. (2019). Psychologie in de klas: Wat iedere leraar moet weten. Culemborg, Nederland: Phrones

Weinstein, Y., Sumeracki, M., & Caviglioli, O. (2018). Undertanding how we learn: A visual guide. New York, Verenigde Staten: Routledge.

If you want to have your full concentration while studying, it's better to study in silence. Do you listen to music? Then make sure it is familiar and calm music: that way it won't distract you. There is much debate on the internet about whether listening to music while studying is a good idea or not. According to the mood-arousal hypothesis, music has a positive effect on our mood and arousal/motivation. As a result, according to this hypothesis, we would perform better on cognitive tasks when we listen to music. But when we look at the research, it generally turns out that we learn better in silence. Music would actually (unconsciously) demand a part of your attention, thus distracting you from your task. The problem is that we are not often in a completely silent room. Since background noises also demand a part of your attention, research finds little difference between listening to music or having ambient sounds. There are a few factors that students can consider when they want to listen to music while studying. How distracting music is appears to depend on what kind of music you listen to, what your personal characteristics are, and what kind of task you need to perform. First of all, the type of music we listen to while studying matters. It turns out that listening to slow, soft, and repetitive music without lyrics is better than listening to loud and busy music with lyrics. This effect could be because calm music has a relaxing effect and reduces stress, while fast music tends to be more distracting. The reason lyrics are distracting is that spoken text interferes with written text and your thoughts. Additionally, some studies have looked at the influence of personality. Introverted people are likely to experience excitement faster when listening to music than extroverted people. For this reason, introverted people are also more likely to suffer from concentration problems and fatigue when listening to music. Furthermore, students who get bored quickly benefit more from listening to music. Listening to music would ensure that their thoughts wander less quickly. Lastly, it matters whether students are performing a simple or complex task. For a simple task, listening to music would interfere less than for a complex task. This is because a complex task requires more attention, and as discussed above, listening to music takes away part of your attention. The effect of music on learning performance is therefore not straightforward. Inform students that when they need their full concentration, it is better to study in a quiet room. But when they are in a space with many distracting noises, they can still benefit from playing soft, calm music. Since music has a positive effect on mood, you can suggest to students to listen to music before studying. This way, they start with more enthusiasm for learning. You can also set up a small experiment in the classroom where students take a test after studying with and without music. This way, they can discover for themselves whether they benefit from listening to music or not.

Christodoulou, D. (2017). Making Good Progress, Oxford: OUP

Peer feedback is especially educational for the giver and is not always correct. In peer feedback, students give each other feedback on each other's work, behavior, or performance. The feedback is usually given based on a number of assessment criteria. Research shows that peer feedback is very effective for learning performance, but is often not correct (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). The person giving feedback needs relatively a lot of domain knowledge because they take on more of an expert role, but they often do not have this knowledge. Because this knowledge is often overestimated, the feedback is often not effective (Zundert, Sluijsman & Merriënboer, 2010) (see also differentiating between beginners and experts). However, it appears that giving peer feedback is educational in the following forms (Nicol, 2011): Active learning When students receive feedback, from a teacher or fellow student, they have a passive role. When they give feedback, they have an active role. Formulating feedback is a different cognitive process than reading received feedback. Actively using criteria When giving peer feedback, students must actively judge quality in relation to the criteria and substantiate this. They are forced to think about the criteria. That is something different from taking note of shared criteria. Reciprocity students become learning resources for each other. They read each other's work and see how other students approach things. They see that there is not one correct answer; quality has many faces. And by giving and receiving peer feedback, students have a responsibility to each other, for the work of others, but also for their own work. Domain expertise By regularly having to judge different work from various fellow students, they develop broader knowledge as they take on the role of the expert. Learning from each other When students get used to working with peer feedback, it can strengthen social cohesion and turn the group into a learning community. Strengthening self-evaluation It is easier to critically look at the work of others than to critically look at one's own work. Yet it is one and the same skill. When students are accustomed to judging work and using criteria in the process, they also become better at critically judging their own work. To make peer feedback effective, it should contain the following elements (Popta, 2019): A. Evaluative judgment: The student gives a judgment B. Improvement suggestion: The student gives a suggestion for improvement; what could the classmate have done better? C. Explanation: The student provides an explanation for their judgment or suggestion. D. Theoretical concept: The student uses relevant theory to support their explanation.

Giving feedback

Popta, E. (2019). De kracht van online peerfeedback. Presentatie opgevraagd op 4-4-2019 van: Congres Toetsing en Examinering in het hoger onderwijs 2019.

Pearce, J., Mulder, R., Baik, C. 2009. Involving students in peer review. Case studies and practical strategies for university Teaching. Melbourne: Centre for Study of Higher Education.

Nicol, D. (2011). Developing students’ ability to construct feedback. QAA Scotland, Enhancement Themes.

Zundert, M. van, Sluijsmans, D., & Merriënboer, J. van. (2010). Effective peer assessment processes: Research findings and future directions. Learning and Instruction, 20(4), 270-279.

Reading a text once is useful, the second time it just seems that way. Students often use rereading as a learning strategy. Most research shows that rereading helps with recalling a text, but that rereading only slightly helps in improving learning performance. How significant the benefit of rereading is depends on the time between two readings and how long after reading the test moment is (see figure 1, Rawson, 2012). Despite the small but positive effect of rereading on memory, it probably does not help students to understand the text better. Rereading gives students the false impression that they understand the material because they recognize the text. This leads to them no longer engaging in deep processing of the material: the students do not learn much more from it. For this reason, it is better to encourage students to actively retrieve information from their memory (see retrieval practice). Give a lesson where you explain to the students why it is better to actively engage with the learning material instead of rereading it. Give students advice on different active learning strategies. For example, students can actively engage at home by using flashcards, creating a concept map, or making practice questions. Try to actively engage with the material during the lesson. Start the lesson, for example, with a few questions about last week's material or create a small quiz about the past lessons.

Giving instruction

Peeters, W. (2020, 7 januari). Dual Coding: Codeer leerstof dubbel in je brein. Geraadpleegd van: https://www.vernieuwenderwijs.nl/dual-coding-codeer-leerstof-dubbel-in-je-brein/

Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational psychology review, 3(3), 149-210.

Meijs, C., Hurks, P. P., Wassenberg, R., Feron, F. J., & Jolles, J. (2016). Inter-individual differences in how presentation modality affects verbal learning performance in children aged 5 to 16. Child neuropsychology, 22(7), 818-836.

Sadoski, M., Kealy, W. A., Goetz, E. T., & Paivio, A. (1997). Concreteness and imagery effects in the written composition of definitions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 518.

The information in our long-term memory is stored in schemas: coherent chunks of information. By dividing (complex) learning material into related manageable parts, or chunks, you align with the way our brain stores information. Students are thus less cognitively burdened and can process and store information better as a result. It is important to present the chunks in a logical order and ensure that the new chunk is integrated with old information. This way, the chunks are regularly repeated and associated with the larger schema. Furthermore, students can be helped to see the coherence between the different chunks. A (partially filled) concept or mind map can, for example, help to visualize the coherence. Suppose students need to learn about cells. You can then first teach students about the general functioning of cells. In the next lesson, you can briefly combine (chunk) the information about cells at the beginning. Then you can zoom in on cell nuclei and ensure that both components are merged into the same schema. In the following lessons, you apply the same principle to DNA, RNA, and proteins. This gradually forms a complex schema of information that is much better retained than when material (incoherently) is presented in separate parts.

Guida, A., Gobet, F., Tardieu, H., & Nicolas, S. (2012). How chunks, long-term working memory and templates offer a cognitive explanation for neuroimaging data on expertise acquisition: A two-stage framework. Brain and Cognition, 79(3), 221–244.

Rey, G.D., Beege, M., Nebel, S., Wirzberger, M., Schmitt, T.H., & Schneider, S. (2019). A Meta-analysis of the Segmenting Effect. Educational Psychology Review, 31, 389–419.

Levasseur, D. G., & Kanan Sawyer, J. (2006). Pedagogy Meets PowerPoint: A Research Review of the Effects of Computer-Generated Slides in the Classroom. Review of Communication, 6(1–2), 101–123.

People learn to recognize faces, talk, and walk (primary knowledge) on their own, but need help with things like reading and writing (secondary knowledge). According to cognitive developmental psychologist David Geary, we learn many things 'naturally', without noticeably much effort. We learn to recognize faces by looking and comparing, we learn to talk by listening, and we learn to walk by falling and getting up. These are all forms of learning that, evolutionarily speaking, are necessary for survival. We therefore also call them biological or evolutionary primary learning. We can store biological primary knowledge directly in long-term memory without conscious processing in working memory. Additionally, biological secondary knowledge is also important for humans, such as reading and writing. This knowledge is necessary to function well in our current society. It is therefore important to support secondary learning: • For learning secondary knowledge at school, children will have to suppress their natural tendencies. That takes effort. They will also have to learn to learn in a different way than with primary learning. • Direct instruction is an effective way to teach secondary knowledge to beginners. By connecting school-based secondary learning to things that students are already naturally engaged with, such as the immediate living environment or social processes (primary learning), they become more motivated.

Differentiation, giving instruction

Kirschner, P. A., Claessens, L. & Raaijmakers, S. (2018). Op de schouders van reuzen: Inspirerende inzichten uit de cognitieve psychologie voor leerkrachten. Meppel: Ten Brink Uitgevers.

A clear structure provides support and forms the basis of learning. Structure ensures that students know what is expected of them. A clear structure provides support and forms the basis of learning. Structure ensures that students know what is expected of them. They rely on that structure, which strengthens their sense of competence. The more structure and regularity are provided, the less cognitively burdened the students are, and the more space they have left for the learning material. As a teacher, you can mainly provide structure in the areas of discipline and the learning process. In terms of discipline, you can ensure structure by agreeing on consistent behavioral rules with them, making expectations clear, and acting consistently when these agreements are violated. For example, you can reward discipline by granting exclusive access to a seminar to students who have completed all the offered quizzes in between. You can structure the learning process by providing clear learning outcomes, breaking down the material into manageable steps, giving worked examples, helping with planning, being consistent, and giving powerful feedback. Structure is important, but too much structure can make students passive because they feel they are losing autonomy and the lessons become more boring for them. After all, they know exactly what is going to happen. It is therefore important to find the right balance between providing structure and supporting autonomy. By involving students in the creation of behavioral rules and the determination of the learning process, this can be ensured.

Active processing, self-regulated learning

Rubie-Davies, C., Hattie, J., & Hamilton, R. (2006). Expecting the best for students: Teacher expectations and academic outcomes. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(3), 429-444.

Szumski, G., & Karwowski, M. (2019). Exploring the Pygmalion effect: The role of teacher expectations, academic self-concept, and class context in students’ math achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 59, 101787.

Timmermans, A. C., Kuyper, H., & Van der Werf, G. (2015). Accurate, inaccurate, or biased teacher expectations: Do Dutch teachers differ in their expectations at the end of primary ­education? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(4), 459–478.

De Boer, H., Timmermans, A. C., & Van der Werf, M. P. (2018). The effects of teacher expectation interventions on teachers’ expectations and student achievement: narrative review and meta-analysis. Educational Research and Evaluation, 24(3–5), 180–200.

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Teacher expectations for the disadvantaged. Scientific ­American, 218(4), 19–23.

The expectations that teachers have of students influence their performance. The 'Pygmalion effect' is the title – and nowadays a commonly used term – of a study from 1968. In this study, conducted by Robert Rosenthal and Leonore Jacobson, it was investigated to what extent teachers' expectations influence students' performance. This phenomenon originated from a Greek myth in which a sculptor fell in love with a self-made statue of the most perfect woman. He wished that the statue would come to life, and it did. “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences” (Thomas Theorem, 1928). Research by Rosenthal and Jacobson revealed that the expectations teachers have of students influence the results of those students. This is because teachers convey these expectations to students through both verbal and non-verbal communication. When a student (unconsciously) shares this expectation, he or she will start to behave accordingly. The phenomenon is a form of the self-fulfilling prophecy. According to meta-analyses by Professor John Hattie (2017), this is the most influential factor of all factors that affect students' academic performance. However, various recent studies indicate that the effects are small and have no lasting impact. Additionally, it is unclear to what extent it affects intelligence. Finally, the question remains whether students actually perform differently due to the behavior of teachers, or because teachers can simply accurately assess how students perform.

Learning together

Jussim, L. & Harber, K. D. (2005). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: Knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(2), 131-155. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0902_3

Good, T. L., Sterzinger, N., & Lavigne, A. (2018). Expectation effects: Pygmalion and the initial 20 years of research. Educational Research and Evaluation, 24, 99-123. doi: 10.1080/13803611.2018.1548817

Schools may do too little for creativity, but they do not kill it. There is no evidence that students become more creative if you abolish school. The most viewed TED video is by Ken Robinson. This speech was later also animated by the RSA. Schools kill creativity. As evidence, Ken Robinson uses, among other things, a study by Guilford (1967). From this research, it appears that students are less brilliant because they learn to think less divergently, in other words, less creatively. Robinson first compares the terms 'brilliant' (IQ) and 'creative,' something he does based on a study by Guilford, who states that 'intelligence (measured IQ)' and 'creativity' are not parts of the same process. They seem to have little to do with each other (Batey & Furnham, 2006; Kim, 2005). Robinson also wrongly asserts that both brilliance and creativity are innate and that this is neglected by schools. There is also no research that shows students become more creative if you were to abolish school.  However, students would naturally become more creative if more consideration were given to it within education (as is the case for everything). So, you could argue that schools do too little to help students work on their creativity, but not that they 'kill' it. It remains true that Sir Ken Robinson is good at inspiring. The RSA video is definitely a viewing tip as far as we are concerned.

De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. & Hulshof, C. (2019). Juffen zijn toffer dan meesters. Nog meer mythes over leren en onderwijs. Amsterdam, Nederland: Lannoo Campus | Anderz.

The self-determination theory states that in order to learn, the three basic needs must be taken into account: autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Ryan and Deci (2000) argue that to enable students to learn effectively (or to motivate them intrinsically), it is important to consider the three basic needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. • Autonomy: The urge to be the owner of your own learning process (note: this does not mean being independent of others). Give students sufficient (choice)freedom in learning, but not too much. • Competence: Trying to control the outcome and experience mastery. Make things difficult enough, but not too difficult. Address students just above their own abilities so they grow the most (see also: zone of proximal development). • Relatedness: The desire for interaction, connection, and the experience of caring for others. Learning is a social process: let students collaborate and engage in modelling.

Motivation

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020

Bekkering, H. & Van der Helden, J. (2015). De lerende mens. Meppel, Nederland: Boom Uitgevers.

The ability to manage one's own emotions and cognitive processes necessary for goal-directed actions such as organizing behavior, controlling impulses, and solving problems constructively. Self-regulation consists of cognitive regulation, emotion regulation, and behavior regulation. These factors influence each other (Murray et al., 2015). Cognitive and emotional regulation mutually influence each other and essentially form the building blocks for behavioral regulation. Self-regulation is closely linked to the so-called 'executive functions'. Sometimes these terms are even used as synonyms, but that is not correct: it only overlaps with one function (response inhibition or impulse control). Focusing purely on learning, self-regulation (or self-directed learning) is about learning where one independently and responsibly takes control of their own learning processes (Boekaerts & Simons, 2012). The student may decide on actions in the learning process, formulate sub-goals, and has their own responsibility in the approach and execution, without deviating from the main goals (Luken, 2008). Three different learning strategies (in combination with each other) play a role in self-regulation: cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational/affective learning strategies (Kostons, Donker, & Opdenakker, 2014). • Cognitive learning strategies involve information processing where new information is linked to existing knowledge. This includes: repeating, relating, concretizing, applying, analyzing, structuring, and selecting. • Metacognitive learning strategies occur in the realm of knowledge about one's own learning. It mainly concerns strategies to approach learning (orienting, planning), to monitor (monitoring the process, adjusting) or to evaluate (diagnosing, testing, reflecting). • Motivational/affective learning strategies are about one's own motivational and emotional beliefs and reactions in relation to learning. This includes thinking about: attributing (assigning learning outcomes to something or someone), motivating, concentrating, valuing, exerting effort, dealing with positive and negative emotions, and self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the belief in one's own abilities. When this belief is present, motivation will be greater and the ultimate performance will be better (Bandura, 2010). Various factors influence the extent to which someone can be self-regulating. This is related, for example, to age, upbringing (‘co-regulation’), traumatic experiences, brain developmental delays such as in ADHD, internal goals and values, and the intrinsic motivation that stems from them. Self-regulated learning is extremely challenging for students and pupils and is often oversimplified. However, you can work on the self-regulating ability of students by, for example, providing effective feedback, teaching learning strategies, and applying modelling.

Ownership, control over learning, differentiation

Murray, D.W., Rosanbalm, K., Christopoulos, C., & Hamoudi, A. (2015). Self-Regulation and Toxic Stress: Foundations for Understanding Self-Regulation from an Applied Developmental Perspective. OPRE Report #2015-21, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

You remember things best if they are at the beginning or the end of the list. The serial-position effect is a memory effect discovered by the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (see also forgetting curve). He discovered that we remember items (words, facts, etc.) from a list better if they are at the beginning or the end of the list. This is especially true if one is allowed to determine the order of reproduction themselves (see image). The better recall of words at the beginning of the list is the primacy effect. The better recall of the last words in the list is called the recency effect. An explanation for the primacy effect is that those items receive relatively the most attention, so they are repeated more often. This helps you remember it better (see retrieval practice and forgetting curve). An explanation for the recency effect is that those items were mentioned most recently and are therefore stored in short-term memory. These items are better remembered because they are, as it were, still fresh in the memory.

Active processing

Yoo, J. & Kaushanskaya, M. (2016). Serial-position effects on a free-recall task in bilinguals. Memory, 24(3), 409-422. doi:10.1080/09658211.2015.1013557

Learning goals (or outcomes) indicate what students should know and be able to do after a learning period. By regularly discussing the learning outcomes with students and linking them to learning and assessment activities, students better understand what they need to do when learning. Their level of self-regulation and self-analysis also increases, and you create conditions for effective feedback. Regularly revisiting the learning outcomes serves as a compass for learning. It should not be information that is only found in the study guide. Additionally, it is advisable to continuously (implicitly) address the (success) criteria in the discussion about the learning outcomes. How can students demonstrate that they have mastered a particular learning outcome? What are the criteria for a good presentation, for example? What should not be missing in their report? In this way, it becomes clear through small steps what is needed to master learning outcomes. The use of learning outcomes and success criteria can be traced back to the Goal Setting Theory about setting goals. According to this theory, challenging, specific, and achievable goals provide motivation and offer a basis for giving feedback. Other research shows that student engagement is highly dependent on how important, interesting, and relevant they find certain goals. As teachers, you can make a significant contribution to this by clearly explaining to students the usefulness of learning outcomes. When the end goal is very extensive and far away, it helps to set sub-goals.

Devid, V., & Hemeltjen, H. (2020). Deel 1. Wat zijn leerdoelen en waarom zou je met leerdoelen werken? Vernieuwenderwijs. Deze tekst is terug te vinden op de website van verniewenderwijs onder het kopje leerdoelen, deel 1.

Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (1994). Goal Setting Theory. In H.F. O’Neill & M. Drillings (Reds.), Motivation: Theory and Research. (pp. 13–31). Londen: Psychology Press.

Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2002). The development of competence beliefs, expectancies for suc- cess, and achievement values from childhood through adolescence. In A. Wigfield & J. S. Eccles (Eds.), Development of Achievement Motivation (pp. 91–120). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.

Showing (partially) worked-out examples is an effective way to teach students how to solve problems or acquire skills, especially with a complex subject or a topic that students know little about.  Complex subjects and a lack of prior knowledge cause a load on the working memory. Examples can reduce that cognitive load because students can first try to follow and explain the steps of the example before they have to make those steps themselves. It is precisely that explaining and understanding of the steps that is particularly effective. Students can, for example, try to explain why one example is better than another, or they can try to explain how an example came about step by step. Furthermore, examples ensure that students develop a sense of quality. By studying multiple examples, they understand what characterizes high-quality and less good products. Three important ways to provide examples are: 1. demonstrating yourself (modelling); 2. providing (partially) worked-out examples; 3. showing concrete examples from practice or the work of a fellow student. As students become more proficient in the subject or skill, you can gradually reduce the assistance. This is also known as 'scaffolding'. For more experienced students, worked-out examples have less impact on learning. You can better engage them with activating work forms. A common misconception is that showing (worked-out) examples will cause students to imitate them instead of thinking for themselves. But imitation is actually an important first step in learning processes.

Learning, formative action 

de, Bruyckere, P. (2020, 7 januari). Housten wij hebben een probleem. Geraadpleegd van: https://onderzoekonderwijs.net/2018/11/06/houston-wij-hebben-een-probleem/

Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. W. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70, 181–214

Kirschner, P. A., Claessens, L. & Raaijmakers, S. (2018). Op de schouders van reuzen: Inspirerende inzichten uit de cognitieve psychologie voor leerkrachten. Meppel: Ten Brink Uitgevers.

Peeters, W. & Maij, D. (2021). 33 Tips voor HBO-Didactiek. Advies uit onderzoek en onderwijs. Amsterdam: Boom.

The spreading of learning moments over time, in other words, repetition. By continuously training your brain to retrieve information from your long-term memory, you strengthen the connections between the neurons in your brain. This makes it easier to retrieve information from your long-term memory (see forgetting curve). This can be done, for example, by creating practice questions (test questions, quiz questions) about the material from the past weeks (see retrieval practice). By alternating topics and types of practice questions about them (see interleaved practice), the information sticks even better. It is therefore of little use to study for long periods at a stretch: your memory can only process a limited amount of information at a time. If you learn more than that, things will also be forgotten again. It is comparable to your phone's storage getting full and needing space to be made (see Cognitive Load Theory). Additionally, you quickly forget new information again. Rereading a text is not the same as testing yourself. When you reread the text, you recognize things and feel like you are getting better at it. In reality, it is purely about recognition and contributes very little to remembering it. However, there is a good chance that you cannot write it down from memory any better. You are actually fooling yourself (see Illusion of Fluency).

Retrieval practice

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology.  Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

Roediger, H. L., & Pyc, M. A. (2012). Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(4), 242-248.

Benjamin, A. S., & Tullis, J. (2010). What makes distributed practice effective? Cognitive Psychology, 61, 228-247.

You cannot multitask, it just seems that way. Help students to focus. Although we sometimes think we can do multiple things at once, multitasking does not actually exist. Our working memory has a limited capacity to process new information, which means we can only handle one attention-demanding task at a time (this stems from the cognitive load theory). When we try to multitask, we are actually continuously switching between different attention-demanding tasks. Therefore, task switching is actually a better term than multitasking. Some tasks, such as driving and listening to music, we can do simultaneously. Driving and talking are both automated: they do not demand attention from your working memory. As soon as you find yourself in a difficult traffic situation, you should turn down the music to be able to concentrate properly. By multitasking, students ultimately spend more time on the task or tasks they are trying to complete. It takes time and energy to switch between tasks: this is called the switching penalty (see image). The temptation to multitask is very strong for students. Smartphones, with the help of notifications, beg for attention and students are often afraid of missing out on something in group chats. Students often think that it does no harm to send a message now and then while studying. The risks should not be underestimated. Multitasking is linked to stress and fatigue. It causes students to spend more time on their homework and make more mistakes. Explain to students that by multitasking, they spend more time on their homework or study work. Tell them that multitasking is related to making mistakes: although it sometimes seems like you can do multiple things at the same time (for example, studying and occasionally texting), in reality, your brain is constantly switching tasks. Moreover, it takes quite a while before you are fully engaged with one task again. If you stop studying for a few seconds to send a message, it takes an average of 2-3 minutes before you are fully focused again. Point out to students that it is important for them to fully concentrate while studying. It is important that they make their learning environment as distraction-free as possible: for example, have them put their phone far away or set it to airplane mode, and ensure there is quiet. Also, make sure they can take a short active break sometimes. Try for yourself Use the stopwatch to record the time it takes you to complete the assignment. This assignment consists of two parts. Record the time separately for each part. For part 1 of this assignment, write the following words on your paper: lighters – hairdryer – password. These words all have 10 letters. Write the numbers 1 through 10 under the 10 letters of each word. So you first write down the words and then the numbers 1 to 10 under each word. How long does this take you? We will do the assignment again, but this time you will do two lines at once. On line 1, you start with the A of lighter and on line 2 you put the 1. Go back to line 1, where you write the second A of lighter, and then back to line 2 for the number 2. Continue like this, so that you write the words and the number sequences simultaneously. Are you done? Then look at the time. Are you faster with this part than with part 1 of the assignment?

Bowman, L. L., Levine, L. E., Waite, B. M., & Gendron, M. (2010). Can students really multitask? An experimental study of instant messaging while reading. Computers & Education, 54(4), 927-931.

Jeong, S. H., & Hwang, Y. (2015). Multitasking and persuasion: The role of structural interference. Media Psychology, 18(4), 451-474.

Jeong, S. H., & Hwang, Y. (2016). Media multitasking effects on cognitive vs. attitudinal outcomes: A meta-analysis. Human Communication Research, 42(4), 599-618.

Lang, A., & Chrzan, J. (2015). Media Multitasking: Good, Bad, or Ugly? Annals of the International Communication Association, 39(1), 99–128. doi:10.1080/23808985.2015.11679173

Mark, G., Gudith, D., & Klocke, U. (2008). The cost of interrupted work: more speed and stress. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 107-110). ACM

Swimming is very healthy, but drowning is not. From the idea that students need to experience urgency or become curious, the choice often seems to be made to let students tackle issues independently. Choices are then made, such as providing minimal guidance or answering as few questions as possible. It is a didactic approach that can create constructive friction when students feel pleasantly challenged, and that works motivating. However, it often causes destructive friction, where students feel they are not being supported enough, causing them to become demotivated. The nuance lies in the fact that not all students benefit from being thrown into the deep end without clear support. That depends on their existing prior knowledge. For one person it works as a stimulant, while for another it works as a frustration. So challenge students by giving them different choices, but don't let everyone swim in the deepest pool right away as a principle.

Peeters, W. & Maij, D. (2021). 33 Tips voor HBO-Didactiek. Advies uit onderzoek en onderwijs. Amsterdam: Boom.

When educational programs focus on fewer summative assessments and important decision moments, there is sometimes a fear that students will be less motivated if they do not receive regular grades. An understandable fear, because learning for good grades is what we have taught students. No child is born asking for a grade. This is taught to children in our education system. We condition them. By continuing to value good grades, both in curriculum design and in interactions with students, this is maintained. Education should actually ‘decipher’ students: remove grades as the focal point. The nuance lies in the fact that it is difficult to achieve this as an individual teacher. The moment you assess less yourself, but colleagues still constantly test for grades, students will always prioritize those tests. After all, there are important consequences attached to those grades. This problem therefore requires a collective vision on learning, from which the choice can be made together to focus more on development than on assessment across the entire curriculum. So, engage in conversation with colleagues about this and work towards a learning culture.

Peeters, W. & Maij, D. (2021). 33 Tips voor HBO-Didactiek. Advies uit onderzoek en onderwijs. Amsterdam: Boom.

The self-determination theory takes into account the three basic needs: autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Ryan and Deci (2000) argue that in order for students to learn effectively (or to motivate them intrinsically), it is important to consider the three basic needs of students, namely: • Autonomy: The urge to be the owner of your own learning process. (Note: this does not mean independent of others). Give students sufficient (choice) freedom in learning, but not too much. • Competence: Trying to control the outcome and experiencing mastery. Make things difficult enough, but not too difficult. Address students just above their own abilities (see also: zone of proximal development). • Relationship (connectedness): The universal desire for interaction, connection, and the experience of caring for others. Learning is a social process: let students collaborate and engage in modelling.

Stimulate learning, ownership, motivation

Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67. http://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020

Bekkering, H. & Helden, J van der. (2015). De lerende mens. Meppel, Nederland: Boom Uitgevers.

By making schemas, you can present information in an organized manner. From the overview, you understand the information and the connections better, which helps you remember it better.  A concept map is a schematic method that helps in creating an overview of the connections. The concept map is often confused with a mind map. The difference between these two methods is that a mind map uses free associations, while a concept map places a strong emphasis on the relationships between successive connections. With a concept map, you can also make mistakes in relational connections, which forces students to think extra carefully about the material. A concept map also gives students the opportunity to understand the information in detail better, without losing sight of the bigger picture. Furthermore, a concept map helps students build on information they already have. It is easier to remember new information when it is linked to already stored information. Explain to students that it is useful to create a concept map to understand the relationships between concepts. Creating a concept map can certainly be complicated at first. To practice creating a concept map, it is helpful for you as a teacher to indicate which concepts or topics should be included. You can also practice with a partially filled-in concept map. All blocks can be connected to each other. For example, you can connect all the important concepts from a chapter to each other; what is related to what? In the schema, you can also use colors and icons to make everything even clearer. You can also use other types of schemas (see images), if you want to draw differences between things, draw the different steps of something, or draw a cycle.

Geurts, R., & Wevers, I. (2020, 7 januari). Laat studenten een conceptmap maken. Geraadpleegd van: https://www.vernieuwenderwijs.nl/laat-studenten-een-concept-map-maken/

Batdi, V. 2014. “The Effect Of Using The Concept-Mapping Technique And Traditional Methods On The Achievement, Retention And Attitudes of students: A Meta-Analytic Study”, Dumlupinar University Journal of Social Sciences, no.42, pp. 93-102

Chiou, C. 2008. “The Effect Of Concept Mapping On students’ Learning Achievements And Interests”, Innovations in Education and Teaching International, vol. 45, no.4, pp. 375–387

Correia, P. R. M. (2012). The use of concept maps for knowledge management: from classrooms to research labs. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 402(6), 1979-1986.

By actively engaging with the material, your brain has to work. That's learning. Students often learn by rereading a text, highlighting, or writing a summary. This often doesn't work well because it is passive (not active): your brain doesn't do much. To ensure that information is well stored, it is better to actively engage with the material. You remember the information better this way.  Actively engaging with information does not mean that the student is busy with the information (this can also mean mindlessly copying information), but it means that the student is actively thinking about the information. Information that you have thought about thoroughly sticks better in your memory. By actively retrieving information from your long-term memory, you strengthen the connections between the neurons in your brain: this makes it easier to retrieve information from your long-term memory (see forgetting curve). Actively engaging with information during the lesson is also beneficial for learning performance (see image). You can engage with the material in various ways. For example, you can create a schema of the study material or test yourself by answering questions. Additionally, you can actively engage with the information you have already learned by trying to write down from memory what you still know. Answering practice questions also helps. Lastly, it helps to make learning enjoyable for yourself. You can assist students in this by regularly asking questions or having students create schemas: make students think. For more information, look at the different learning strategies: retrieval practice, spaced practice, and interleaved practice.

Grip on learning, deep learning

Dewing, J. (2010). Moments of movement: Active learning and practice development. Nurse Education in Practice, 10(1), 22-26.

Roediger, H. L., Putnam, A. L., & Smith, M. A. (2011). Ten benefits of testing and their applications to educational practice. Psychology of learning and motivation, 55, 1-36.

Stories take a preferential position within our brain. They are good for understanding and remembering things better. Information is stored in our long-term memory. That is where the power of a good story comes into play. One of the components of long-term memory is declarative memory. This memory concerns non-automated memory such as having a substantive conversation or learning concepts. Declarative memory consists of semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory is the ability to recall facts, meanings, and concepts, independent of the situation in which we learned them (see also the forgetting curve). Episodic memory is the ability to reconstruct events from our lives, taking into account factors such as time, place, and emotion. These two systems work together: you first learn concepts in a certain context (lesson), which are then stored in semantic memory independently of the context. Thus, students often remember episodic details of a lesson without knowing exactly what was discussed. By telling stories that include interesting facts, you can take advantage of the connection between episodic and semantic memory. This makes storytelling a powerful way to learn. Research (Graesser et al., 1994) found that students could remember about 50% more from a text with a narrative character than from an objectively written text. Further research (Meyers & Duffy, 1990) showed that we mainly remember stories due to the strength of the causal connections. If connections are weak or too strong, we process them less actively and remember them less well (see image). Stories are therefore particularly powerful if they make you think. It is powerful to incorporate narrative elements into your lesson, such as 'The Four C’s: Causality, Conflict, Complications, and Character (Willingham, 2004). For example, you can incorporate learning material into a (personal) story where there is a conflict between characters or where an obstacle must be overcome to achieve a goal.

Baddeley AD, Hitch GJ. 1974. Working memory. In The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory, ed. GA Bower, pp. 47–89. New York: Academic

Didau, D. & Rose, N. (2019). Psychologie in de klas: Wat iedere leraar moet weten. Culemborg, Nederland: Phronese

Graesser, A. C., Singer, M., Trabasso, T. (1994). Constructing Inferences During Narrative Text Comprehension. Psychological Review, 101, 371–395.

Keenan, J.M., Baillet, S.D., & Brown, P. (1987). The effect of causal cohesion on comprehension and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 115–126.

Surma, T., Vanhoyweghen, K., Sluijsmans, D., Camp, G., Muijs, D., en Kirschner, P. (2018). Wijze lessen: Twaalf bouwstenen voor effectieve didactiek. Meppel, Nederland: Ten Brink Uitgevers.

Feedback is essential for learning. A number of rules are important when giving effective feedback. Feedback helps students to learn: it helps them store information better in long-term memory. There are three types of feedback (Kirschner, et al., 2018): • Corrective: this is right/wrong • Directive: this needs to be improved • Epistemic: this is right/wrong, but why is that so? Epistemic feedback is generally the most effective: it makes students think about the feedback. Additionally, there are these insights: • Feedback is most effective when it is concrete, manageable, objective, task-oriented, and easy to understand (Hattie, 2012). • More feedback is not always good! It is important that feedback is necessary: let students think for themselves as well. • Feedback can be given at different levels (see below). The most sustainable feedback is at the process and self-regulation level (Voerman and Faber, 2016) because it is transferable to other contexts (assignments, tests, etc).

Deep learning, formative actions, Giving feedback

Lucassen, M. (2020, 7 januari). Feedback in de klas: 5 tips! Geraadpleegd van: https://www.vernieuwenderwijs.nl/feedback-in-de-klas/

Sluijsmans, D. (2020, 7 januari). Neem formatief niet te snel voor lief: tien lessen van Dylan Wiliam (5 t/m 7). Geraagdpleegd van: http://toetsrevolutie.nl/?p=490

Fletcher-Wood, H, (2020, 7 januari). The evidence on feedback: a decision tree. Geraadpleegd van: https://improvingteaching.co.uk/2017/10/22/the-evidence-on-feedback-a-decision-tree/

Bekkering, H. & Helden, J van der. (2015). De lerende mens. Meppel, Nederland: Boom Uitgevers.

Sluijsmans, D. & Segers, M. (2018). Toetsrevolutie: Naar een feedbackcultuur in het hoger onderwijs. Culemborg, Nederland: Uitgeverij Phronese

Collaboration is educational, but also challenging. Make it successful with a few conditions. The summary study by Timothy Nokes-Malach and colleagues (2019) showed that research was inconclusive about collaboration. Some studies found benefits and others found no difference or even disadvantages for collaboration. The thoughtful implementation of collaborative learning is therefore necessary because there are certain types of tasks and group contexts in which individuals do not perform well, even if the group succeeds.  The main conditions for successful collaboration: • Keep the 'costs' low Communicating and coordinating takes energy. True collaboration will only occur if the benefits of collaborating outweigh the costs. The costs can be kept low by working with task divisions, practicing collaboration, and composing the group based on prior knowledge (homogeneous, although a heterogeneous group can lead to deeper learning).  • Ensure the task is complex enough This way, the students are obliged to work together. students need each other to be able to complete the assignment. Too simple assignments result in more 'costs' than 'benefits' for working in a group. The complexity of the assignment is closely related to the prior knowledge of the students. • Emphasize collaboration within the group students must realize that criticism of each other's ideas is acceptable, but personal attacks are not. Additionally, it must be clear that making mistakes and receiving negative feedback are part of the learning process. • Focus on the learning process It is recommended to focus on learning and mastering in groups rather than on the evaluative aspect. It's about the process. students are more motivated in group work when they realize that the assignment is meaningful and see that collaboration offers added value.  • Do not assume that students can collaborate Collaboration must be taught and, like other knowledge and skills, is not easily transferable.

Learning together

Nokes-Malach, T., Zepeda, C., Richey, J., & Gadgil, S. (2019). Collaborative learning: The benefits and costs. In J. Dunlosky & K. Rawson Zepeda, C., Richey, J., (Eds.), The Cambridge Hand- & Gadgil, S. book of Cognition and Education (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 500-527). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Surma, T., Vanhoyweghen, K., Sluijsmans, D., Camp, G., Muijs, D., en Kirschner, P. (2018). Wijze lessen: Twaalf bouwstenen voor effectieve didactiek. Meppel, Nederland: Ten Brink Uitgevers.

Reward students in the right way and at the right time. Ensure it works positively. Rewarding behavior (referred to as 'reinforcement' in science) can have a positive effect on the learning process, provided you apply it correctly. It is important to note that not everyone responds the same way to rewards: some need more rewards than others. You can take into account: • Use partial reinforcement Reinforce desired behavior not always, but for example 80% of the time. In this way, students are more aware of the relationship between behavior and reward than with continuous reinforcement (always rewarding) because it is perceived as 'normal'. Partial reinforcement also leads to slower extinction (disappearance of the effect). • Reinforce quickly Reinforcement should be given immediately (quickly) after the desired behavior, so that the connection between the behavior and the reward is clear. • Tailor the reinforcement Customize the reinforcement to the person and the situation. For example, if a reward is too large, the disappointment of not achieving it can also be very great and thus demotivating. Too many interim rewards can also backfire: they can distract from the long-term goal. • Consider basic needs If a student has too little autonomy, the reward will have little effect because the student feels they have too little influence over it. The student may then find it difficult to link their behavior to the reward. So take autonomy, relationship, and competence into account. • Build reinforcement For example, if a student starts the year with high grades, it will be disappointing if they get lower grades afterward (because it has become more difficult). It may therefore be didactically smart to give lower grades at the beginning of the school year to prevent students from feeling like they are getting worse. • Do not reinforce intrinsic motivation If students are intrinsically motivated for something (they enjoy learning it on their own), reinforcement can have a counterproductive effect: students may perceive the behavior as extrinsically driven and feel less autonomous, which can negatively affect motivation.

Bekkering, H. & Helden, J van der. (2015). De lerende mens. Meppel, Nederland: Boom Uitgevers.

Create concrete and achievable learning goals for the lesson. This ensures more motivation and performance. Setting achievable and concrete goals is important for the learning process. We know this from research conducted on the goal setting theory. Research on this theory shows that challenging but achievable goals motivate students the most to work hard (see image (Latham, Seijts, & Crim, 2008)). Setting specific and concrete goals helps students to focus their concentration and actions on the right information. Additionally, goals provide an overview, and students receive feedback on their progress by achieving or not achieving these goals. When the end goal is large and distant, sub-goals should be set. Before the lesson begins, clearly determine what the learning goal for the students is. Communicate the learning goals to your students and make it clear why these learning goals are important. The more relevant you can make them to their world of experience, the better. At the end of the lesson, you can formatively evaluate whether the goal has been achieved, for example, by conducting a quiz. Additionally, help students set their own concrete and achievable (sub)goals. For instance, if they need to learn 200 words for a French test that takes place in a month, it is useful for them to set clear and challenging interim goals. Help them with this, for example, by creating a schedule where they have to learn 25 words twice a week. Finally, it is important to ensure regular feedback on the goals. This feedback does not necessarily have to come from the teacher. Students can also review their own work (see, for example, flashcards) or that of a fellow student.

Lucassen, M. (2020, 7 januari). Marzano en Hattie: de overeenkomsten uit meta-onderzoek. Geraadpleegd van: https://www.vernieuwenderwijs.nl/marzano-en-hattie-overeenkomsten-meta-onderzoek/

Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2016). Motivation interventions in education: A meta-analytic review. Review of Educational research, 86(2), 602-640.

Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (2007). New developments in and directions for goal-setting research. European Psychologist, 12(4), 290-300.

Latham, G. P., Seijts, G., & Crim, D. (2008). The effects of learning goal difficulty level and cognitive ability on performance. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 40(4), 220.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2015). Breaking the rules: a historical overview of goal-setting theory. In Advances in motivation science (Vol. 2, pp. 99-126). Elsevier.

Feedback is one of the most important components of the learning process for pupils and students. Besides providing effective feedback, it is equally important that students handle it well: feedback literacy. Feedback literacy is the ability to receive, interpret, and use feedback to learn from it. It involves a set of skills and attitudes to recognize and understand the learning value of feedback and subsequently take action based on it. A widely used model for feedback literacy is that of Carless and Boud (2018). According to Carless and Boud, feedback literacy consists of three aspects, which together ensure that as a pupil or student, you take action (Leenknecht, 2018): • Appreciating Feedback involves recognizing and valuing feedback: you realize that you are receiving feedback, see its value (priorities), and appreciate it. To work on this, it is useful, for example, to have students reflect on the feedback they have received before the assessment (Jackson & Marks, 2016). • Making Judgments involves the ability to assess one’s own work, so that they can accurately determine what further action is necessary. To work on this, it is beneficial, for example, to engage in peer feedback, with extra emphasis on judgment formation and knowing and applying the assessment criteria (Leenknecht & Prins, 2018). • Managing Affect involves being emotionally open to feedback. You want to avoid a defensive reaction to feedback and instead encourage a constructive approach. To work on this, it is helpful to focus on development rather than failure: making mistakes is allowed. A prerequisite for this is that there is space in the curriculum to actually learn from your mistakes. Key concepts in working on feedback literacy are ‘scaffolding’ and the ‘zone of proximal development’. Both concepts are part of the ideas of Lev Vygotsky. In line with his ideas, research by De Kleijn (2021) shows that feedback becomes especially meaningful and therefore more powerful when it occurs in social interaction with more experienced peers, who can certainly include teachers. In other words, through conversation. Particularly, asking questions for oneself is often found to be very challenging in practice. It is therefore important to actively help students by teaching them strategies. A good way to do this is by teaching students what questions they can ask themselves or their peer (fellow student, teacher, or other professional). These questions will depend on the situation: for example, have they received feedback before? Are they facing a particular challenge? Is there a specific goal to be achieved? Based on the situation, you can help students by asking them good questions (De Kleijn, 2021).

Feedback geven

https://vernieuwenderwijs.nl/feedbackgeletterdheid-in-de-les/

Sutton, P. (2012). Conceptualizing feedback literacy: knowing, being, and acting. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 49, 31–40.

Boud, D., & Molloy, E. (2013). Rethinking models of feedback for learning: The challenge of design. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(6), 698–712.

Our working memory consists of several components that form a bridge to long-term memory and can only handle a limited amount of information. Our working memory (short-term memory) processes the information (stimuli) we receive and transfers it to long-term memory. Here, the new information is linked to existing information (schemas). The working memory consists of the following components: • Executive functions: These act as a kind of overseer: as soon as information enters the working memory, they determine what we focus our attention on. We have no control over this: even if we try to concentrate, an unexpected sound will distract us. • Phonological loop: This processes speech and other forms of auditory information. • Visuo-spatial sketchpad: This component temporarily holds visual information and spatial relationships between objects (think of: movements in relation to the position of the body). • Episodic buffer: This links the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and existing prior knowledge in the long-term memory.   Due to the functioning of the working memory, it is effective to combine words and images (see dual coding). This is because the information then enters the working memory in two ways. For example, it is not useful to read a text aloud during a presentation: the working memory wants to read this while it is also being read aloud. The phonological loop then has to concentrate on two things, but it is not able to do this. The working memory can handle a limited amount of information: on average, this is 7 (plus or minus 2) 'chunks' of information simultaneously and these are retained for 15-30 seconds. After that, you forget it again or it is stored in the long-term memory. The long-term memory supports the working memory by linking the information to already existing information (prior knowledge). For example, the letter sequence IGP BMLA GDO is difficult to remember, but if we translate it to PIG LAMB DOG, then it suddenly becomes 3 chunks that are probably easy to remember. The Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) provides 7 clear guidelines on how to take into account the load on working memory.

Activating prior knowledge, active repetition

Dideau, D. & Rose, N. (2019). Psychologie in de klas: Wat iedere leraar moet weten. Culemborg, Nederland: Phrones

Weinstein, Y., Sumeracki, M., & Caviglioli, O. (2018). Undertanding how we learn: A visual guide. New York, Verenigde Staten: Routledge.

By writing, you usually remember things a bit better than by typing. Research does not show a very clear advantage of writing or typing. Writing and typing both have their pros and cons. The advantage of typing is that it is faster than writing, allowing students to keep up with the teacher more easily. Additionally, typed notes are often more organized and are easy to sort and store. The downside of typing is that students often transcribe what the teacher says verbatim, which means they are not engaging in deep processing of the material. Moreover, laptops bring the risk of digital distractions such as social media or games. Writing is slower than typing, and the slower pace combined with the fact that you are physically (motorically) engaged means you are more consciously involved and activate your brain more. You need to think more and thus remember it better. For this, use the Cornell method, for example. The research showed that students who took notes by hand remembered more of the lecture than students who typed their notes. This was evident from a test taken half an hour later. Moreover, they scored slightly higher on the comprehension questions. In summary: both typing and writing have their pros and cons. If you look at the entire literature, there are various studies that show relatively small advantages of writing over typing.

Bui, D. C., Myerson, J., & Hale, S. (2013). Note-taking with computers: Exploring alternative strategies for improved recall. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 299

Hembrooke, H., & Gay, G. (2003). The laptop and the lecture: The effects of multitasking in learning environments. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 15(1), 46–64.

Luo, L., Kiewra, K. A., Flanigan, A. E., & Peteranetz, M. S. (2018). Laptop versus longhand note taking: Effects on lecture notes and achievement. Instructional Science, 46(6), 947-971.

Morehead, K., Dunlosky, J., & Rawson, K. A. (2019). How much mightier is the pen than the keyboard for note-taking? A replication and extension of mueller and oppenheimer (2014). Educational Psychology Review, 1-28.

Suppose you have to create something you have never done before. Maybe you are going to try out a new online teaching method for the first time or create a new type of test. What is one of the first things you are going to do? You will probably look for examples. If there is one powerful way of learning, it is learning from others. We are social animals and programmed to imitate others: it is our natural way of learning. By demonstrating something or sharing examples, you can help a student learn something well. However, imitating something is not that simple. For example, could you immediately drive a car during your first driving lesson, after sitting next to someone who drove for 21 years? Imitating something and translating it into your own context is often difficult enough. You often develop your own (driving) style long after you have obtained your driver's license. The nuance lies in the fact that, as a teacher, you do not want to give students a copy-paste example, but rather use examples from a didactic perspective. For example, show students good and bad examples, let students figure out the steps needed to reach the example, or let students translate examples into their own context. This way, they develop a sense of quality.

Peeters, W. & Maij, D. (2021). 33 Tips voor HBO-Didactiek. Advies uit onderzoek en onderwijs. Amsterdam: Boom.

The zone of proximal development is the difference between what you can do without help and what you can do with help. By doing something just above your ability, you come to learn. The theory of the zone of proximal development originates from Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934). Everything you can do independently is the actual development. Everything you need help with is the proximal development. The area in between is the zone of proximal development: activities that you cannot yet do independently, but can do with social support during their execution. You are addressed in your zone of proximal development by (supported) offerings that are just above your level: not too easy, challenging, but not too difficult. In doing so, the support is gradually reduced at each level until someone can do it themselves. That is the moment the student has reached the new level. This is also called scaffolding.

Activating prior knowledge

Smit, J. & van Eerde, D. (2013). What counts as evidence for the long-term realisation of whole-class scaffolding? Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 2(1), 22-31. doi: 10.1016/j.lcsi.2012.12.006